Stellar black hole

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Artist's impression of a stellar-mass black hole (left) in the spiral galaxy NGC 300; it is associated with a Wolf-Rayet star Artist's impression of the black hole inside NGC 300 X-1 (ESO 1004a).jpg
Artist's impression of a stellar-mass black hole (left) in the spiral galaxy NGC 300; it is associated with a Wolf–Rayet star

A stellar black hole (or stellar-mass black hole) is a black hole formed by the gravitational collapse of a star. [1] They have masses ranging from about 5 to several tens of solar masses. [2] They are the remnants of supernova explosions, which may be observed as a type of gamma ray burst. These black holes are also referred to as collapsars.

Contents

Properties

By the no-hair theorem, a black hole can only have three fundamental properties: mass, electric charge, and angular momentum. The angular momentum of a stellar black hole is due to the conservation of angular momentum of the star or objects that produced it.

The gravitational collapse of a star is a natural process that can produce a black hole. It is inevitable at the end of the life of a massive star when all stellar energy sources are exhausted. If the mass of the collapsing part of the star is below the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) limit for neutron-degenerate matter, the end product is a compact star – either a white dwarf (for masses below the Chandrasekhar limit) or a neutron star or a (hypothetical) quark star. If the collapsing star has a mass exceeding the TOV limit, the crush will continue until zero volume is achieved and a black hole is formed around that point in space.

The maximum mass that a neutron star can possess before further collapsing into a black hole is not fully understood. In 1939, it was estimated at 0.7 solar masses, called the TOV limit. In 1996, a different estimate put this upper mass in a range from 1.5 to 3 solar masses. [3] The maximum observed mass of neutron stars is about 2.14 M☉ for PSR J0740+6620 discovered in September, 2019. [4]

In the theory of general relativity, a black hole could exist of any mass. The lower the mass, the higher the density of matter has to be in order to form a black hole. (See, for example, the discussion in Schwarzschild radius, the radius of a black hole.) There are no known stellar processes that can produce black holes with mass less than a few times the mass of the Sun. If black holes that small exist, they are most likely primordial black holes. Until 2016, the largest known stellar black hole was 15.65±1.45 solar masses. [5] In September 2015, a rotating black hole of 62±4 solar masses was discovered by gravitational waves as it formed in a merger event of two smaller black holes. [6] As of June 2020, the binary system 2MASS J05215658+4359220 was reported [7] to host the smallest-mass black hole currently known to science, with a mass 3.3 solar masses and a diameter of only 19.5 kilometers.

There is observational evidence for two other types of black holes, which are much more massive than stellar black holes. They are intermediate-mass black holes (in the center of globular clusters) and supermassive black holes in the center of the Milky Way and other galaxies.

X-ray compact binary systems

Stellar black holes in close binary systems are observable when the matter is transferred from a companion star to the black hole; the energy released in the fall toward the compact star is so large that the matter heats up to temperatures of several hundred million degrees and radiates in X-rays. The black hole, therefore, is observable in X-rays, whereas the companion star can be observed with optical telescopes. The energy release for black holes and neutron stars are of the same order of magnitude. Black holes and neutron stars are therefore often difficult to distinguish.

The derived masses come from observations of compact X-ray sources (combining X-ray and optical data). All identified neutron stars have a mass below 3.0 solar masses; none of the compact systems with a mass above 3.0 solar masses display the properties of a neutron star. The combination of these facts makes it more and more likely that the class of compact stars with a mass above 3.0 solar masses are in fact black holes.

Note that this proof of the existence of stellar black holes is not entirely observational but relies on theory: we can think of no other object for these massive compact systems in stellar binaries besides a black hole. A direct proof of the existence of a black hole would be if one actually observes the orbit of a particle (or a cloud of gas) that falls into the black hole.

Black hole kicks

The large distances above the galactic plane achieved by some binaries are the result of black hole natal kicks. The velocity distribution of black hole natal kicks seems similar to that of neutron star kick velocities. One might have expected that it would be the momenta that were the same with black holes receiving lower velocity than neutron stars due to their higher mass but that doesn't seem to be the case, [8] which may be due to the fall-back of asymmetrically expelled matter increasing the momentum of the resulting black hole. [9]

Mass gaps

It is predicted by some models of stellar evolution that black holes with masses in two ranges cannot be directly formed by the gravitational collapse of a star. These are sometimes distinguished as the "lower" and "upper" mass gaps, roughly representing the ranges of 2 to 5 and 50 to 150 solar masses (M☉), respectively. [10] Another range given for the upper gap is 52 to 133 M☉. [11] 150 M☉ has been regarded as the upper mass limit for stars in the current era of the universe. [12]

Lower mass gap

A lower mass gap is suspected on the basis of a scarcity of observed candidates with masses within a few solar masses above the maximum possible neutron star mass. [10] The existence and theoretical basis for this possible gap are uncertain. [13] The situation may be complicated by the fact that any black holes found in this mass range may have been created via the merging of binary neutron star systems, rather than stellar collapse. [14] The LIGO/Virgo collaboration has reported three candidate events among their gravitational wave observations in run O3 with component masses that fall in this lower mass gap. There has also been reported an observation of a bright, rapidly rotating giant star in a binary system with an unseen companion emitting no light, including x-rays, but having a mass of 3.3+2.8
−0.7 solar masses. This is interpreted to suggest that there may be many such low-mass black holes that are not currently consuming any material and are hence undetectable via the usual x-ray signature. [15]

Upper mass gap

The upper mass gap is predicted by comprehensive models of late-stage stellar evolution. It is expected that with increasing mass, supermassive stars reach a stage where a pair-instability supernova occurs, during which pair production, the production of free electrons and positrons in the collision between atomic nuclei and energetic gamma rays, temporarily reduces the internal pressure supporting the star's core against gravitational collapse. [16] This pressure drop leads to a partial collapse, which in turn causes greatly accelerated burning in a runaway thermonuclear explosion, resulting in the star being blown completely apart without leaving a stellar remnant behind. [17]

Pair-instability supernovae can only happen in stars with a mass range from around 130 to 250 solar masses (M☉) and low to moderate metallicity (low abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium – a situation common in Population III stars). However, this mass gap is expected to be extended down to about 45 solar masses by the process of pair-instability pulsational mass loss, before the occurrence of a "normal" supernova explosion and core collapse. [18] In nonrotating stars the lower bound of the upper mass gap may be as high as 60 M☉. [19] The possibility of direct collapse into black holes of stars with core mass > 133 M☉, requiring total stellar mass of > 260 M☉ has been considered, but there may be little chance of observing such a high-mass supernova remnant; i.e., the lower bound of the upper mass gap may represent a mass cutoff. [11]

Observations of the LB-1 system of a star and unseen companion were initially interpreted in terms of a black hole with a mass of about 70 solar masses, which would be excluded by the upper mass gap. However, further investigations have weakened this claim.

Black holes may also be found in the mass gap through mechanisms other than those involving a single star, such as the merger of black holes.

Candidates

Our Milky Way galaxy contains several stellar-mass black hole candidates (BHCs) which are closer to us than the supermassive black hole in the galactic center region. Most of these candidates are members of X-ray binary systems in which the compact object draws matter from its partner via an accretion disk. The probable black holes in these pairs range from three to more than a dozen solar masses. [20] [21] [22]

NameMass (solar masses) Orbital period
(days)		Distance
from
Earth (ly)		Celestial
Coordinates [23]
BHC Companion
Gaia BH3 32.70 ± 0.820.76 ± 0.054,253.1 ± 98.5192619:39:19 +14:55:54
Cyg X-1 21.2 ± 2.2 [24] 40.6+7.7
−7.1 [24] 		5.66000...800019:58:22 +35:12:06
GRS 1915+105/V1487 Aql14 ± 4.0≈133.54000019:15:12 +10:56:44
V404 Cyg 12 ± 26.06.57800 ± 460 [25] 20:24:04 +33:52:03
A0620-00/V616 Mon11 ± 22.6–2.80.33350006:22:44 −00:20:45
XTE J1650-500 9.7 ± 1.6 [26] 5–100.32 [27] 1076316:50:01 −49:57:45
Gaia BH1 9.62 ± 0.180.93 ± 0.05185.59 ± 0.05156017:28:41 −00:34:52
XTE J1550-564/V381 Nor9.6 ± 1.26.0...7.51.51700015:50:59 −56:28:36
4U 1543-475/IL Lupi9.4 ± 1.00.251.12400015:47:09 −47:40:10
Gaia BH2 8.94 ± 0.341.07 ± 0.191,276.7 ± 0.6380013:50:17 −59:14:20
MAXI J1305-704 [28] 8.9+1.6
−1.0		0.43 ± 0.160.394 ± 0.0042450013:06:55 −70:27:05
GS 1354-64 (BW Cir) [29] 7.9 ± 0.51.1 ± 0.12.5445>8150013:58:10 −64:44:06
XTE J1859+226 (V406 Vul) [30] 7.8 ± 1.90.55 ± 0.160.276 ± 0.00318:58:42 +22:39:29
HD 130298 [31] >7.7 ± 1.524.2 ± 3.814.60791014:49:34 −56:25:38
NGC 3201 #21859 [32] [33] 7.68 ± 0.500.61 ± 0.052.2422 ± 0.00011570010:17:39 −46:24:25
GS 2000+25/QZ Vul7.5 ± 0.34.9...5.10.35880020:02:50 +25:14:11
XTE J1819-254/V4641 Sgr7.1 ± 0.35...82.8224000...40000 [34] 18:19:22 −25:24:25
LB-1 (disputed) [35] 7 ± 2 [35] 1.5 ± 0.4 [35] 78.7999 ± 0.0097 [35] 15000 [36] 06:11:49 +22:49:32 [37]
GRS 1124-683/Nova Muscae 1991/GU Mus7.0 ± 0.60.431700011:26:27 −68:40:32
H 1705-25/Nova Ophiuchi 1977/V2107 Oph [38] 6.95 ± 1.35 [39] 0.34 ± 0.080.5212517:08:15 −25:05:30
XTE J1118+480/KV UMa6.8 ± 0.46...6.50.17620011:18:11 +48:02:13
MAXI J1820+070 [40] 6.75+0.64
−0.46		0.49 ± 0.10.68549 ± 0.00001980018:20:22 +07:11:07
GRO J1655-40/V1033 Sco6.3 ± 0.32.6...2.82.85000...1100016:54:00 −39:50:45
GX 339-4/V821 Ara5.85...61.751500017:02:50 −48:47:23
GRO J1719-24 ≥4.9≈1.6possibly 0.6 [41] 850017:19:37 −25:01:03
NGC 3201 #12560 [32] [33] 4.53 ± 0.210.81 ± 0.05167.01 ± 0.091570010:17:37 −46:24:55
GRS 1009-45  /
Nova Velorum 1993/MM Velorum [42] 		4.3 ± 0.10.5...0.650.285206 ±
0.0000014		1720010:13:36 −45:04:33
GRO J0422+32/V518 Per4 ± 11.10.21850004:21:43 +32:54:27

Extragalactic

Candidates outside our galaxy come from gravitational wave detections:

Outside our galaxy
Name BHC mass
(solar masses)		Companion mass
(solar masses )		 Orbital period
(days)		Distance from Earth
(light years)		Location [23]
GW190521 (155+17
−11) M☉		78+9
−5 [43] 		78+9
−5 [43]
GW150914 (62 ± 4) M☉36 ± 429 ± 4.1.3 billion
GW170104 (48.7 ± 5) M☉31.2 ± 719.4 ± 6.1.4 billion
GW170814 (53.2+3.2
−2.5) M☉		30.5+5.7
−3.0		25.3+2.8
−4.2		1.8 billion
GW190412 29.78.42.4 billion
GW190814 22.2–24.32.50–2.67
GW151226 (21.8 ± 3.5) M☉14.2 ± 67.5 ± 2.3.2.9 billion
GW170608 12+7
−2		7 ± 21.1 billion

Candidates outside our galaxy from X-ray binaries:

NameHost galaxy BHC mass
(solar masses)		Companion mass
(solar masses )		 Orbital period
(days)		Distance from Earth
(light years)
IC 10 X-1 [44] IC 10 ≥23.1 ± 2.1≥171.451752.15 million
NGC 300 X-1 [45] NGC 300 17 ± 426+7
−5		1.36633756.5 million
M33 X-7 Triangulum Galaxy 15.65 ± 1.4570 ± 6.93.45301 ± 0.000022.7 million
LMC X-1 [46] Large Magellanic Cloud 10.91 ± 1.4131.79 ± 3.483.9094 ± 0.0008180,000 [47]
LMC X-3 [48] Large Magellanic Cloud6.98 ± 0.563.63 ± 0.571.704808157,000

The disappearance of N6946-BH1 following a failed supernova in NGC 6946 may have resulted in the formation of a black hole. [49]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cygnus X-1</span> Galactic X-ray source in the constellation Cygnus that is very likely a black hole

Cygnus X-1 (abbreviated Cyg X-1) is a galactic X-ray source in the constellation Cygnus and was the first such source widely accepted to be a black hole. It was discovered in 1964 during a rocket flight and is one of the strongest X-ray sources detectable from Earth, producing a peak X-ray flux density of 2.3×10−23 W/(m2⋅Hz) (2.3×103 jansky). It remains among the most studied astronomical objects in its class. The compact object is now estimated to have a mass about 21.2 times the mass of the Sun and has been shown to be too small to be any known kind of normal star or other likely object besides a black hole. If so, the radius of its event horizon has 300 km "as upper bound to the linear dimension of the source region" of occasional X-ray bursts lasting only for about 1 ms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">X-ray binary</span> Class of binary stars

X-ray binaries are a class of binary stars that are luminous in X-rays. The X-rays are produced by matter falling from one component, called the donor, to the other component, called the accretor, which is either a neutron star or black hole. The infalling matter releases gravitational potential energy, up to 30 percent of its rest mass, as X-rays. The lifetime and the mass-transfer rate in an X-ray binary depends on the evolutionary status of the donor star, the mass ratio between the stellar components, and their orbital separation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Superluminous supernova</span> Supernova at least ten times more luminous than a standard supernova

A super-luminous supernova is a type of stellar explosion with a luminosity 10 or more times higher than that of standard supernovae. Like supernovae, SLSNe seem to be produced by several mechanisms, which is readily revealed by their light-curves and spectra. There are multiple models for what conditions may produce an SLSN, including core collapse in particularly massive stars, millisecond magnetars, interaction with circumstellar material, or pair-instability supernovae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intermediate-mass black hole</span> Class of black holes with a mass range of 100 to 100000 solar masses

An intermediate-mass black hole (IMBH) is a class of black hole with mass in the range of tens to tens thousand (102–105) solar masses: significantly higher than stellar black holes but lower than the tens thousand to hundreds trillion (105–1015) solar mass supermassive black holes. Several IMBH candidate objects have been discovered in the Milky Way galaxy and others nearby, based on indirect gas cloud velocity and accretion disk spectra observations of various evidentiary strength.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">47 Tucanae</span> Globular cluster in the constellation Tucana

47 Tucanae or 47 Tuc is a globular cluster located in the constellation Tucana. It is about 4.45 ± 0.01 kpc (15,000 ± 33 ly) from Earth, and 120 light years in diameter. 47 Tuc can be seen with the naked eye, with an apparent magnitude of 4.1. It appears about 44 arcminutes across including its far outreaches. Due to its far southern location, 18° from the south celestial pole, it was not catalogued by European astronomers until the 1750s, when the cluster was first identified by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille from South Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Binary pulsar</span> Two pulsars orbiting each other

A binary pulsar is a pulsar with a binary companion, often a white dwarf or neutron star. Binary pulsars are one of the few objects which allow physicists to test general relativity because of the strong gravitational fields in their vicinities. Although the binary companion to the pulsar is usually difficult or impossible to observe directly, its presence can be deduced from the timing of the pulses from the pulsar itself, which can be measured with extraordinary accuracy by radio telescopes.

The Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit is an upper bound to the mass of cold, non-rotating neutron stars, analogous to the Chandrasekhar limit for white dwarf stars. Stars more massive than the TOV limit collapse into a black hole. The original calculation in 1939, which neglected complications such as nuclear forces between neutrons, placed this limit at approximately 0.7 solar masses (M☉). Later, more refined analyses have resulted in larger values.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ultraluminous X-ray source</span>

In astronomy and astrophysics, an ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) is less luminous than an active galactic nucleus but more consistently luminous than any known stellar process (over 1039 erg/s, or 1032 watts), assuming that it radiates isotropically (the same in all directions). Typically there is about one ULX per galaxy in galaxies which host them, but some galaxies contain many. The Milky Way has not been shown to contain an ULX, although SS 433 is a candidate. The main interest in ULXs stems from their luminosity exceeding the Eddington luminosity of neutron stars and even stellar black holes. It is not known what powers ULXs; models include beamed emission of stellar mass objects, accreting intermediate-mass black holes, and super-Eddington emission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pair-instability supernova</span> Type of high-energy supernova in very large stars

A pair-instability supernova is a type of supernova predicted to occur when pair production, the production of free electrons and positrons in the collision between atomic nuclei and energetic gamma rays, temporarily reduces the internal radiation pressure supporting a supermassive star's core against gravitational collapse. This pressure drop leads to a partial collapse, which in turn causes greatly accelerated burning in a runaway thermonuclear explosion, resulting in the star being blown completely apart without leaving a stellar remnant behind.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GRS 1915+105</span> Binary system in the constellation Aquila

GRS 1915+105 or V1487 Aquilae is an X-ray binary star system containing a main sequence star and a black hole. Transfer of material from the star to the black hole generates a relativistic jet, making this a microquasar system. The jet exhibits apparent superluminal motion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GRO J0422+32</span> Star in the constellation Perseus

GRO J0422+32 is an X-ray nova and black hole candidate that was discovered by the BATSE instrument on the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory satellite on 5 August 1992. During outburst, it was observed to be stronger than the Crab Nebula gamma-ray source out to photon energies of about 500 keV.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypernova</span> Supernova that ejects a large mass at unusually high velocity

A hypernova is a very energetic supernova which is believed to result from an extreme core collapse scenario. In this case, a massive star collapses to form a rotating black hole emitting twin astrophysical jets and surrounded by an accretion disk. It is a type of stellar explosion that ejects material with an unusually high kinetic energy, an order of magnitude higher than most supernovae, with a luminosity at least 10 times greater. Hypernovae release such intense gamma rays that they often appear similar to a type Ic supernova, but with unusually broad spectral lines indicating an extremely high expansion velocity. Hypernovae are one of the mechanisms for producing long gamma ray bursts (GRBs), which range from 2 seconds to over a minute in duration. They have also been referred to as superluminous supernovae, though that classification also includes other types of extremely luminous stellar explosions that have different origins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">UY Volantis</span> Low mass X-ray binary in the constellation Volans

UY Volantis, also known as EXO 0748-676, is a low mass X-ray binary system located in the constellation Volans. With an apparent magnitude of 16.9, it requires a powerful telescope to see. With a radial velocity of 20 km/s, it is drifting away from the Solar System, and is currently located 26,000 light years away.

References

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