Dicer

Last updated

DICER1
Mouse dicer.jpg
Available structures
PDB Ortholog search: PDBe RCSB
Identifiers
Aliases DICER1 , DCR1, Dicer, Dicer1e, HERNA, MNG1, RMSE2, K12H4.8-LIKE, dicer 1, ribonuclease III, GLOW
External IDs OMIM: 606241; MGI: 2177178; HomoloGene: 13251; GeneCards: DICER1; OMA:DICER1 - orthologs
Orthologs
SpeciesHumanMouse
Entrez

23405

192119

Ensembl

ENSG00000100697

ENSMUSG00000041415

UniProt

Q9UPY3

Q8R418

RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_001195573
NM_001271282
NM_001291628
NM_030621
NM_177438

NM_148948

RefSeq (protein)

NP_001182502
NP_001258211
NP_001278557
NP_085124
NP_803187

NP_683750

Location (UCSC) Chr 14: 95.09 – 95.16 Mb Chr 12: 104.65 – 104.72 Mb
PubMed search [3] [4]
Wikidata
View/Edit Human View/Edit Mouse

Dicer, also known as endoribonuclease Dicer or helicase with RNase motif, is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the DICER1 gene. Being part of the RNase III family, Dicer cleaves double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and pre-microRNA (pre-miRNA) into short double-stranded RNA fragments called small interfering RNA and microRNA, respectively. These fragments are approximately 20–25 base pairs long with a two-base overhang on the 3′-end. Dicer facilitates the activation of the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which is essential for RNA interference. RISC has a catalytic component Argonaute, which is an endonuclease capable of degrading messenger RNA (mRNA). [5]

Discovery

Dicer was given its name in 2001 by Stony Brook PhD student Emily Bernstein while conducting research in Gregory Hannon's lab at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Bernstein sought to discover the enzyme responsible for generating small RNA fragments from double-stranded RNA. Dicer's ability to generate around 22 nucleotide RNA fragments was discovered by separating it from the RISC enzyme complex after initiating the RNAi pathway with dsRNA transfection. This experiment showed that RISC was not responsible for generating the observable small nucleotide fragments. Subsequent experiments testing RNase III family enzymes abilities to create RNA fragments narrowed the search to Drosophila CG4792, now named Dicer. [6]

Dicer orthologs are present in many other organisms. [7] In the moss Physcomitrella patens DCL1b, one of four DICER proteins, is not involved in miRNA biogenesis but in dicing miRNA target transcripts. Thus, a novel mechanism for regulation of gene expression, the epigenetic silencing of genes by miRNAs, was discovered. [8]

In terms of crystal structure, the first Dicer to be explored was that from the protozoan Giardia intestinalis . The work was done by Ian MacRae while conducting research as a postdoctoral fellow in Jennifer Doudna's lab at the University of California, Berkeley. A PAZ domain and two RNase III domains were discovered by X-ray crystallography. The protein size is 82  kDa, representing the conserved functional core that has subsequently been found in larger Dicer proteins in other organisms; for example, it is 219 kDa in humans. The difference in size from humans to G. intestinalis Dicer is due to at least five different domains being present within human Dicer. These domains are important in Dicer activity regulation, dsRNA processing, and RNA interference protein factor functioning. [9]

Functional domains

One molecule of the Dicer protein from Giardia intestinalis, which catalyzes the cleavage of dsRNA to siRNAs. The RNase III domains are colored green, the PAZ domain yellow, the platform domain red, and the connector helix blue. 2ffl-by-domain.png
One molecule of the Dicer protein from Giardia intestinalis , which catalyzes the cleavage of dsRNA to siRNAs. The RNase III domains are colored green, the PAZ domain yellow, the platform domain red, and the connector helix blue.

Human dicer (also known as hsDicer or DICER1) is classified a Ribonuclease III because it cleaves double-stranded RNA. In addition to two RNaseIII domains, it contains a helicase domain, a PAZ (Piwi/Argonaute/Zwille) domain, [11] [12] and two double stranded RNA binding domains (DUF283 and dsRBD). [9] [13]

Current research suggests the PAZ domain is capable of binding the 2 nucleotide 3' overhang of dsRNA while the RNaseIII catalytic domains form a pseudo-dimer around the dsRNA to initiate cleavage of the strands. This results in a functional shortening of the dsRNA strand. The distance between the PAZ and RNaseIII domains is determined by the angle of the connector helix and influences the length of the micro RNA product. [10] The dsRBD domain binds the dsRNA, although the specific binding site of the domain has not been defined. It is possible that this domain works as part of a complex with other regulator proteins (TRBP in humans, R2D2, Loqs in Drosophila) in order to effectively position the RNaseIII domains and thus control the specificity of the sRNA products. [14] The helicase domain has been implicated in processing long substrates. [14]

Role in RNA interference

The enzyme dicer trims double stranded RNA or pri-miRNA to form small interfering RNA or microRNA, respectively. These processed RNAs are incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which targets messenger RNA to prevent translation. RNAi-simplified.png
The enzyme dicer trims double stranded RNA or pri-miRNA to form small interfering RNA or microRNA, respectively. These processed RNAs are incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which targets messenger RNA to prevent translation.

Micro RNA

RNA interference is a process where the breakdown of RNA molecules into miRNA inhibits gene expression of specific host mRNA sequences. miRNA is produced within the cell starting from primary miRNA (pri-miRNA) in the nucleus. These long sequences are cleaved into smaller precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA), which are usually 70 nucleotides with a hairpin structure. Pri-miRNA are identified by DGCR8 and cleaved by Drosha to form the pre-miRNA, a process that occurs in the nucleus. These pre-miRNA are then exported to the cytoplasm, where they are cleaved by Dicer to form mature miRNA. [16]

Small Interfering RNA

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) are produced and function in a similar manner to miRNA by cleaving double-stranded RNA with Dicer into smaller fragments, 21 to 23 nucleotides in length. [14] Both miRNAs and siRNAs activate the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which finds the complementary target mRNA sequence and cleaves the RNA using RNase. [17] This in turn silences the particular gene by RNA interference. [18] siRNAs and miRNAs differ in the fact that siRNAs are typically specific to the mRNA sequence while miRNAs aren't completely complementary to the mRNA sequence. miRNAs can interact with targets that have similar sequences, which inhibits translation of different genes. [19] In general, RNA interference is an essential part of normal processes within organisms such as humans, and it is an area being researched as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool for cancer targets. [16]

Formation of miRNA used in RNA interference MiRNA-biogenesis.jpg
Formation of miRNA used in RNA interference

Disease

Macular degeneration

Age related macular degeneration is a prominent cause of blindness in developed countries. Dicer's role in this disease became apparent after it was discovered that affected patients showed decreased levels of Dicer in their retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Mice with Dicer knocked out, lacking Dicer only in their RPE, exhibited similar symptoms. However, other mice lacking important RNAi pathway proteins like Drosha and Pasha, did not have symptoms of macular degeneration as Dicer-knockout mice. This observation suggested a Dicer specific role in retinal health that was independent of the RNAi pathway and thus not a function of si/miRNA generation. A form of RNA called Alu RNA (the RNA transcripts of alu elements)) was found to be elevated in patients with insufficient Dicer levels. These non coding strands of RNA can loop forming dsRNA structures that would be degraded by Dicer in a healthy retina. However, with insufficient Dicer levels, the accumulation of alu RNA leads to the degeneration of RPE as a result of inflammation. [20] [21]

Cancer

Altered miRNA expression profiles in malignant cancers suggest a pivotal role of miRNA and thus dicer in cancer development and prognosis. miRNAs can function as tumor suppressors and therefore their altered expression may result in tumorigenesis. [22] In analysis of lung and ovarian cancer, poor prognosis and decreased patient survival times correlate with decreased dicer and drosha expression. Decreased dicer mRNA levels correlate with advanced tumor stage. However, high dicer expression in other cancers, like prostate [23] and esophageal, has been shown to correlate with poor patient prognosis. This discrepancy between cancer types suggests unique RNAi regulatory processes involving dicer differ amongst different tumor types. [16]

Dicer is also involved in DNA repair. DNA damage increases in mammalian cells with decreased Dicer expression as a result of decreased efficiency of DNA damage repair and other mechanisms. For example, siRNA from double strand breaks (produced by Dicer) may act as guides for protein complexes involved in the double strand break repair mechanisms and can also direct chromatin modifications. Additionally, miRNAs expression patterns change as a result of DNA damage caused by ionizing or ultraviolet radiation. RNAi mechanisms are responsible for transposon silencing and in their absence, as when Dicer is knocked out/down, can lead to activated transposons that cause DNA damage. Accumulation of DNA damage may result in cells with oncogenic mutations and thus the development of a tumor. [16]

Other conditions

Multinodular goiter with schwannomatosis has been shown to be an autosomal dominant condition associated with mutations in this gene. [24]

Viral pathogenesis

Infection by RNA viruses can trigger the RNAi cascade. It is likely dicer is involved in viral immunity as viruses that infect both plant and animal cells contain proteins designed to inhibit the RNAi response. In humans, the viruses HIV-1, influenza, and vaccinia encode such RNAi suppressing proteins. Inhibition of dicer is beneficial to the virus as dicer is able to cleave viral dsRNA and load the product onto RISC resulting in targeted degradation of viral mRNA; thus fighting the infection. Another potential mechanism for viral pathogenesis is the blockade of dicer as a way to inhibit cellular miRNA pathways. [25]

In insects

In Drosophila, Dicer-1 generates microRNAs (miRNAs) by processing pre-miRNA, Dicer-2 is responsible for producing small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) from long double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). [26] Insects can use Dicer as a potent antiviral. This finding is especially significant given that mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of many viral diseases including the potentially deadly arboviruses: West Nile virus, dengue fever and yellow fever. [27] While mosquitoes, more specifically the Aedes aegypti species, serve as the vectors for these viruses, they are not the intended host of the virus. Transmission occurs as a result of the female mosquito's need for vertebrate blood to develop her eggs. The RNAi pathway in insects is very similar to that of other animals; Dicer-2 cleaves viral RNA and loads it onto the RISC complex where one strand serves as a template for the production of RNAi products and the other is degraded. Insects with mutations leading to non-functional components of their RNAi pathway show increased viral loads for viruses they carry or increased susceptibility to viruses for which they are hosts. Similarly to humans, insect viruses have evolved mechanisms to avoid the RNAi pathway. As an example, Drosophila C virus encodes for protein 1A which binds to dsRNA thus protecting it from dicer cleavage as well as RISC loading. Heliothis virescens ascovirus 3a encodes an RNase III enzyme similar to the RNase III domains of dicer which may compete for dsRNA substrate as well as degrade siRNA duplexes to prevent RISC loading. [28]

Diagnostic and therapeutic applications

Dicer can be used to identify whether tumors are present within the body based on the expression level of the enzyme. A study showed that many patients that had cancer had decreased expression levels of Dicer. The same study showed that lower Dicer expression correlated with lower patient survival length. [16] Along with being a diagnostic tool, Dicer can be used for treating patients by injecting foreign siRNA intravenously to cause gene silencing. [29]

The siRNA was shown to be delivered in two ways in mammalian species such as mice. One way would be to directly inject into the system, which would not require Dicer function. Another way would be to introduce it by plasmids that encode for short hairpin RNA, which are cleaved by Dicer into siRNA. [30]

One of the advantages of using Dicer to produce siRNA therapeutically would be the specificity and diversity of targets it can affect compared to what is currently being used such as antibodies or small molecular inhibitors. In general, small molecular inhibitors are difficult in terms of specificity along with unendurable side effects. Antibodies are as specific as siRNA, but it is limited by only being able to be used against ligands or surface receptors. On the other hand, low efficiency of intracellular uptake is the main obstacle of injection of siRNA. [16] Injected SiRNA has poor stability in blood and causes stimulations of non-specific immunity. [31] Also, producing miRNA therapeutically lacks in specificity because only 6-8 nucleotide base pairing is required for miRNA to attach to mRNA. [32]

Dicer-like proteins

Plant genomes encode for dicer-like proteins with similar functions and protein domains as animal and insect dicer. For example, in the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana , four dicer like proteins are made and are designated DCL1 to DCL4. DCL1 is involved with miRNA generation and sRNA production from inverted repeats. DCL2 creates siRNA from cis-acting antisense transcripts which aid in viral immunity and defense. DCL3 generates siRNA which aids in chromatin modification and DCL4 is involved in trans-acting siRNA metabolism and transcript silencing at the post-transcriptional level. Additionally, DCL 1 and 3 are important for Arabidopsis flowering. In Arabidopsis, DCL knockout does not cause severe developmental problems.

Rice and grapes also produce DCLs as the dicer mechanism is a common defense strategy of many organisms. Rice has evolved other functions for the five DCLs it produces and they play a more important role in function and development than in Arabidopsis. Additionally, expression patterns differ among the different plant cell types of rice while expression in Arabidopsis is more homogeneous. Rice DCL expression can be affected by biological stress conditions, including drought, salinity and cold. Thus these stressors may decrease a plant's viral resistance. Unlike Arabidopsis, loss of function of DCL proteins causes developmental defects in rice. [33]

See also

Related Research Articles

microRNA Small non-coding ribonucleic acid molecule

MicroRNA (miRNA) are small, single-stranded, non-coding RNA molecules containing 21 to 23 nucleotides. Found in plants, animals and some viruses, miRNAs are involved in RNA silencing and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. miRNAs base-pair to complementary sequences in mRNA molecules, then silence said mRNA molecules by one or more of the following processes:

  1. Cleavage of the mRNA strand into two pieces,
  2. Destabilization of the mRNA by shortening its poly(A) tail, or
  3. Reducing translation of the mRNA into proteins.

Gene silencing is the regulation of gene expression in a cell to prevent the expression of a certain gene. Gene silencing can occur during either transcription or translation and is often used in research. In particular, methods used to silence genes are being increasingly used to produce therapeutics to combat cancer and other diseases, such as infectious diseases and neurodegenerative disorders.

Gene knockdown is an experimental technique by which the expression of one or more of an organism's genes is reduced. The reduction can occur either through genetic modification or by treatment with a reagent such as a short DNA or RNA oligonucleotide that has a sequence complementary to either gene or an mRNA transcript.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Small interfering RNA</span> Biomolecule

Small interfering RNA (siRNA), sometimes known as short interfering RNA or silencing RNA, is a class of double-stranded RNA at first non-coding RNA molecules, typically 20–24 base pairs in length, similar to miRNA, and operating within the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. It interferes with the expression of specific genes with complementary nucleotide sequences by degrading mRNA after transcription, preventing translation. It was discovered in 1998, by Andrew Fire at Carnegie Institution for Science in Washington DC and Craig Mello at University of Massachusetts in Worcester.

The RNA-induced silencing complex, or RISC, is a multiprotein complex, specifically a ribonucleoprotein, which functions in gene silencing via a variety of pathways at the transcriptional and translational levels. Using single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) fragments, such as microRNA (miRNA), or double-stranded small interfering RNA (siRNA), the complex functions as a key tool in gene regulation. The single strand of RNA acts as a template for RISC to recognize complementary messenger RNA (mRNA) transcript. Once found, one of the proteins in RISC, Argonaute, activates and cleaves the mRNA. This process is called RNA interference (RNAi) and it is found in many eukaryotes; it is a key process in defense against viral infections, as it is triggered by the presence of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Short hairpin RNA</span> Type of RNA

A short hairpin RNA or small hairpin RNA is an artificial RNA molecule with a tight hairpin turn that can be used to silence target gene expression via RNA interference (RNAi). Expression of shRNA in cells is typically accomplished by delivery of plasmids or through viral or bacterial vectors. shRNA is an advantageous mediator of RNAi in that it has a relatively low rate of degradation and turnover. However, it requires use of an expression vector, which has the potential to cause side effects in medicinal applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ribonuclease III</span> Class of enzymes

Ribonuclease III (RNase III or RNase C)(BRENDA 3.1.26.3) is a type of ribonuclease that recognizes dsRNA and cleaves it at specific targeted locations to transform them into mature RNAs. These enzymes are a group of endoribonucleases that are characterized by their ribonuclease domain, which is labelled the RNase III domain. They are ubiquitous compounds in the cell and play a major role in pathways such as RNA precursor synthesis, RNA Silencing, and the pnp autoregulatory mechanism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Argonaute</span> Protein that plays a role in RNA silencing process

The Argonaute protein family, first discovered for its evolutionarily conserved stem cell function, plays a central role in RNA silencing processes as essential components of the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). RISC is responsible for the gene silencing phenomenon known as RNA interference (RNAi). Argonaute proteins bind different classes of small non-coding RNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs). Small RNAs guide Argonaute proteins to their specific targets through sequence complementarity, which then leads to mRNA cleavage, translation inhibition, and/or the initiation of mRNA decay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drosha</span> Ribonuclease III enzyme

Drosha is a Class 2 ribonuclease III enzyme that in humans is encoded by the DROSHA gene. It is the primary nuclease that executes the initiation step of miRNA processing in the nucleus. It works closely with DGCR8 and in correlation with Dicer. It has been found significant in clinical knowledge for cancer prognosis. and HIV-1 replication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piwi</span> Genes and regulatory proteins

Piwi genes were identified as regulatory proteins responsible for stem cell and germ cell differentiation. Piwi is an abbreviation of P-elementInduced WImpy testis in Drosophila. Piwi proteins are highly conserved RNA-binding proteins and are present in both plants and animals. Piwi proteins belong to the Argonaute/Piwi family and have been classified as nuclear proteins. Studies on Drosophila have also indicated that Piwi proteins have no slicer activity conferred by the presence of the Piwi domain. In addition, Piwi associates with heterochromatin protein 1, an epigenetic modifier, and piRNA-complementary sequences. These are indications of the role Piwi plays in epigenetic regulation. Piwi proteins are also thought to control the biogenesis of piRNA as many Piwi-like proteins contain slicer activity which would allow Piwi proteins to process precursor piRNA into mature piRNA.

RNA silencing or RNA interference refers to a family of gene silencing effects by which gene expression is negatively regulated by non-coding RNAs such as microRNAs. RNA silencing may also be defined as sequence-specific regulation of gene expression triggered by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). RNA silencing mechanisms are conserved among most eukaryotes. The most common and well-studied example is RNA interference (RNAi), in which endogenously expressed microRNA (miRNA) or exogenously derived small interfering RNA (siRNA) induces the degradation of complementary messenger RNA. Other classes of small RNA have been identified, including piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) and its subspecies repeat associated small interfering RNA (rasiRNA).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">EIF2C2</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Protein argonaute-2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the EIF2C2 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">EIF2C1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Protein argonaute-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the EIF2C1 gene.

Trans-acting siRNA are a class of small interfering RNA (siRNA) that repress gene expression through post-transcriptional gene silencing in land plants. Precursor transcripts from TAS loci are polyadenylated and converted to double-stranded RNA, and are then processed into 21-nucleotide-long RNA duplexes with overhangs. These segments are incorporated into an RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) and direct the sequence-specific cleavage of target mRNA. Ta-siRNAs are classified as siRNA because they arise from double-stranded RNA (dsRNA).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stable nucleic acid lipid particle</span>

Stable nucleic acid lipid particles (SNALPs) are microscopic particles approximately 120 nanometers in diameter, smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. They have been used to deliver siRNAs therapeutically to mammals in vivo. In SNALPs, the siRNA is surrounded by a lipid bilayer containing a mixture of cationic and fusogenic lipids, coated with diffusible polyethylene glycol.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">RNA interference</span> Biological process of gene regulation

RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process in which RNA molecules are involved in sequence-specific suppression of gene expression by double-stranded RNA, through translational or transcriptional repression. Historically, RNAi was known by other names, including co-suppression, post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), and quelling. The detailed study of each of these seemingly different processes elucidated that the identity of these phenomena were all actually RNAi. Andrew Fire and Craig C. Mello shared the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work on RNAi in the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans, which they published in 1998. Since the discovery of RNAi and its regulatory potentials, it has become evident that RNAi has immense potential in suppression of desired genes. RNAi is now known as precise, efficient, stable and better than antisense therapy for gene suppression. Antisense RNA produced intracellularly by an expression vector may be developed and find utility as novel therapeutic agents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cas9</span> Microbial protein found in Streptococcus pyogenes M1 GAS

Cas9 is a 160 kilodalton protein which plays a vital role in the immunological defense of certain bacteria against DNA viruses and plasmids, and is heavily utilized in genetic engineering applications. Its main function is to cut DNA and thereby alter a cell's genome. The CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technique was a significant contributor to the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020 being awarded to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna.

RDE-1 (RNAi-DEfective 1) is a primary Argonaute protein required for RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) in Caenorhabditis elegans. The rde-1 gene locus was first characterized in C. elegans mutants resistant to RNAi, and is a member of a highly conserved Piwi gene family that includes plant, Drosophila, and vertebrate homologs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DCL1</span> Protein coding gene in plants

DCL1 is a gene in plants that codes for the DCL1 protein, a ribonuclease III enzyme involved in processing double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and microRNA (miRNA). Although DCL1, also called Endoribonuclease Dicer homolog 1, is named for its homology with the metazoan protein Dicer, its role in miRNA biogenesis is somewhat different, due to substantial differences in miRNA maturation processes between plants and animals, as well due to additional downstream plant-specific pathways, where DCL1 paralogs like DCL4 participate, such Trans-acting siRNA biogenesis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DCL2</span> Dicer-like gene in plants

DCL2 is a gene in plants that codes for the DCL2 protein, a ribonuclease III enzyme involved in processing exogenous double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) into 22 nucleotide small interference RNAs (siRNAs).

References

  1. 1 2 3 GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000100697 – Ensembl, May 2017
  2. 1 2 3 GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000041415 – Ensembl, May 2017
  3. ↑ "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  4. ↑ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  5. ↑ Kyriakidis I, Pelagiadis I, Katzilakis N, Stratigaki M, Keklikoglou I, Tragiannidis A, et al. (Sep 2024). "DICER1 rs3742330 and AGO1 rs636832 polymorphisms and acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Greek children and adolescents: A case-control study". Gene Reports. 37 (December 2024): 102043. doi:10.1016/j.genrep.2024.102043.
  6. ↑ Bernstein E, Caudy AA, Hammond SM, Hannon GJ (2001). "Role for a bidentate ribonuclease in the initiation step of RNA interference". Nature. 409 (6818): 363–6. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..363B. doi:10.1038/35053110. PMID   11201747. S2CID   4371481. Closed Access logo transparent.svg
  7. ↑ Jaskiewicz L, Filipowicz W (2008). "Role of Dicer in Posttranscriptional RNA Silencing". RNA Interference. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 320. pp. 77–97. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-75157-1_4. ISBN   978-3-540-75156-4. PMID   18268840.
  8. ↑ Khraiwesh B, Arif MA, Seumel GI, Ossowski S, Weigel D, Reski R, et al. (Jan 2010). "Transcriptional control of gene expression by microRNAs". Cell. 140 (1): 111–22. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.12.023 . PMID   20085706.
  9. 1 2 Lau PW, Potter CS, Carragher B, MacRae IJ (Oct 2009). "Structure of the human Dicer-TRBP complex by electron microscopy". Structure. 17 (10): 1326–32. doi:10.1016/j.str.2009.08.013. PMC   2880462 . PMID   19836333.
  10. 1 2 Macrae IJ, Zhou K, Li F, Repic A, Brooks AN, Cande WZ, et al. (Jan 2006). "Structural basis for double-stranded RNA processing by Dicer". Science. 311 (5758): 195–8. Bibcode:2006Sci...311..195M. doi:10.1126/science.1121638. PMID   16410517. S2CID   23785494.
  11. ↑ "Entrez Gene: DICER1 Dicer1, Dcr-1 homolog (Drosophila)".
  12. ↑ Matsuda S, Ichigotani Y, Okuda T, Irimura T, Nakatsugawa S, Hamaguchi M (Jan 2000). "Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel human gene (HERNA) which encodes a putative RNA-helicase". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Gene Structure and Expression. 1490 (1–2): 163–9. doi:10.1016/S0167-4781(99)00221-3. PMID   10786632.
  13. ↑ Hammond SM (Oct 2005). "Dicing and slicing: the core machinery of the RNA interference pathway". FEBS Letters. 579 (26): 5822–9. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2005.08.079. PMID   16214139. S2CID   14495726.
  14. 1 2 3 Cenik ES, Fukunaga R, Lu G, Dutcher R, Wang Y, Tanaka Hall TM, et al. (Apr 2011). "Phosphate and R2D2 restrict the substrate specificity of Dicer-2, an ATP-driven ribonuclease". Molecular Cell. 42 (2): 172–84. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2011.03.002. PMC   3115569 . PMID   21419681.
  15. ↑ Hammond SM, Bernstein E, Beach D, Hannon GJ (Mar 2000). "An RNA-directed nuclease mediates post-transcriptional gene silencing in Drosophila cells". Nature. 404 (6775): 293–6. Bibcode:2000Natur.404..293H. doi:10.1038/35005107. PMID   10749213. S2CID   9091863.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Merritt WM, Bar-Eli M, Sood AK (Apr 2010). "The dicey role of Dicer: implications for RNAi therapy". Cancer Research. 70 (7): 2571–4. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-09-2536. PMC   3170915 . PMID   20179193.
  17. ↑ Vermeulen A, Behlen L, Reynolds A, Wolfson A, Marshall WS, Karpilow J, et al. (May 2005). "The contributions of dsRNA structure to Dicer specificity and efficiency". RNA. 11 (5): 674–82. doi:10.1261/rna.7272305. PMC   1370754 . PMID   15811921.
  18. ↑ Watson JD (2008). Molecular Biology of the Gene. San Francisco, CA: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. pp. 641–648. ISBN   978-0-8053-9592-1.
  19. ↑ Zeng Y, Yi R, Cullen BR (Aug 2003). "MicroRNAs and small interfering RNAs can inhibit mRNA expression by similar mechanisms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (17): 9779–84. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.9779Z. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1630797100 . PMC   187842 . PMID   12902540.
  20. ↑ Meister G (Mar 2011). "Vision: Dicer leaps into view". Nature. 471 (7338): 308–9. Bibcode:2011Natur.471..308M. doi: 10.1038/471308a . PMID   21412326.
  21. ↑ Tarallo V, Hirano Y, Gelfand BD, Dridi S, Kerur N, Kim Y, et al. (May 2012). "DICER1 loss and Alu RNA induce age-related macular degeneration via the NLRP3 inflammasome and MyD88". Cell. 149 (4): 847–59. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.03.036. PMC   3351582 . PMID   22541070.
  22. ↑ Tang KF, Ren H (2012). "The role of dicer in DNA damage repair". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 13 (12): 16769–78. doi: 10.3390/ijms131216769 . PMC   3546719 . PMID   23222681.
  23. ↑ Chiosea S, Jelezcova E, Chandran U, Acquafondata M, McHale T, Sobol RW, et al. (Nov 2006). "Up-regulation of dicer, a component of the MicroRNA machinery, in prostate adenocarcinoma". The American Journal of Pathology. 169 (5): 1812–20. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2006.060480. PMC   1780192 . PMID   17071602.
  24. ↑ Rivera B, Nadaf J, Fahiminiya S, Apellaniz-Ruiz M, Saskin A, Chong AS, Sharma S, Wagener R, Revil T, Condello V, Harra Z, Hamel N, Sabbaghian N, Muchantef K, Thomas C, de Kock L, Hébert-Blouin MN, Bassenden AV, Rabenstein H, Mete O, Paschke R, Pusztaszeri MP, Paulus W, Berghuis A, Ragoussis J, Nikiforov YE, Siebert R, Albrecht S, Turcotte R, Hasselblatt M, Fabian MR, Foulkes WD (2019) DGCR8 microprocessor defect characterizes familial multinodular goiter with schwannomatosis. J Clin Invest
  25. ↑ Berkhout B, Haasnoot J (May 2006). "The interplay between virus infection and the cellular RNA interference machinery". FEBS Letters. 580 (12): 2896–902. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2006.02.070. PMC   7094296 . PMID   16563388.
  26. ↑ Cenik ES, Fukunaga R, Lu G, Dutcher R, Wang Y, Tanaka Hall TM, et al. (April 2011). "Phosphate and R2D2 restrict the substrate specificity of Dicer-2, an ATP-driven ribonuclease". Molecular Cell. 42 (2): 172–184. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2011.03.002. PMC   3115569 . PMID   21419681.
  27. ↑ "Mosquito-borne Diseases". National Center for Infections Disease, Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 31 January 2014. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
  28. ↑ Bronkhorst AW, van Rij RP (Aug 2014). "The long and short of antiviral defense: small RNA-based immunity in insects". Current Opinion in Virology. 7: 19–28. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2014.03.010. PMID   24732439.
  29. ↑ Kamlah F, Eul BG, Li S, Lang N, Marsh LM, Seeger W, et al. (Mar 2009). "Intravenous injection of siRNA directed against hypoxia-inducible factors prolongs survival in a Lewis lung carcinoma cancer model". Cancer Gene Therapy. 16 (3): 195–205. doi: 10.1038/cgt.2008.71 . PMID   18818708.
  30. ↑ "Gene silencing by RNA interference is being used routinely to study gene function in cultured mammalian cells". Life Technologies. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  31. ↑ Schiffelers RM, Ansari A, Xu J, Zhou Q, Tang Q, Storm G, et al. (2004). "Cancer siRNA therapy by tumor selective delivery with ligand-targeted sterically stabilized nanoparticle". Nucleic Acids Research. 32 (19): e149. doi:10.1093/nar/gnh140. PMC   528817 . PMID   15520458.
  32. ↑ Chi SW, Zang JB, Mele A, Darnell RB (Jul 2009). "Argonaute HITS-CLIP decodes microRNA-mRNA interaction maps". Nature. 460 (7254): 479–86. Bibcode:2009Natur.460..479C. doi:10.1038/nature08170. PMC   2733940 . PMID   19536157.
  33. ↑ Liu Q, Feng Y, Zhu Z (Aug 2009). "Dicer-like (DCL) proteins in plants". Functional & Integrative Genomics. 9 (3): 277–86. doi:10.1007/s10142-009-0111-5. PMID   19221817. S2CID   28801338.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.