Astigmatism

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Astigmatism
Astigmatism text blur.png
Blur from astigmatic lens at different distances
Specialty Ophthalmology, optometry
Symptoms Distorted or blurred vision at all distances, eyestrain, and headaches [1]
Complications Amblyopia [2]
CausesUnclear [3]
Diagnostic method Eye exam [1]
Treatment Glasses, contact lenses, surgery [1]
Frequency30% to 60% of adults (Europe, Asia) [4]

Astigmatism is a type of refractive error due to rotational asymmetry in the eye's refractive power. This results in distorted or blurred vision at any distance. [1] Other symptoms can include eyestrain, headaches, and trouble driving at night. [1] Astigmatism often occurs at birth and can change or develop later in life. [5] If it occurs in early life and is left untreated, it may result in amblyopia. [2]

Contents

The cause of astigmatism is unclear, although it is believed to be partly related to genetic factors. [3] [4] The underlying mechanism involves an irregular curvature of the cornea and protective reaction changes in the lens of the eye, called lens astigmatism, that has the same mechanism as spasm of accommodation. [1] [3] Diagnosis is by an eye examination called autorefractor keratometry (objective, allows to see lens and cornea components of astigmatism) and subjective refraction.

Three treatment options are available: glasses, contact lenses, and surgery. [1] Glasses are the simplest. [1] Contact lenses can provide a wider field of vision and fewer artifacts than even double aspheric lenses. [1] Refractive surgery aims to permanently change the shape of the eye and thereby cure astigmatism. [1]

In Europe and Asia, astigmatism affects between 30% and 60% of adults. [4] People of all ages can be affected by astigmatism. [1] Astigmatism was first reported by Thomas Young in 1801. [3] [6]

Signs and symptoms

Although astigmatism may be asymptomatic, higher degrees of astigmatism may cause symptoms such as blurred vision, double vision, squinting, eye strain, fatigue, or headaches. [7] Some research has pointed to the link between astigmatism and higher prevalence of migraine headaches. [8]

Causes

Congenital

The cause of congenital astigmatism is unclear, although it is believed to be partly related to genetic factors. [3] Genetics, based on twin studies, appear to play only a small role in astigmatism as of 2007. [9]

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have been used to investigate the genetic foundation of astigmatism. Although no conclusive result has been shown, various candidates have been identified. In a study conducted in 2011 on various Asian populations, variants in the PDGFRA gene on chromosome 4q12 were identified to be associated with corneal astigmatism. [10] A follow-up study in 2013 on the European population, however, found no variant significantly associated with corneal astigmatism at the genome-wide level (single-nucleotide polymorphism rs7677751 at PDGFRA). [11] Facing the inconsistency, a study by Shah and colleagues in 2018 included both populations with Asian and Northern European ancestry. They successfully replicated the previously identified genome-wide significant locus for corneal astigmatism near the PDGFRA gene, with a further success of identifying three novel candidate genes: CLDN7, ACP2, and TNFAIP8L3. [12] Other GWAS studies also provided inconclusive results: Lopes and colleagues identified a susceptibility locus with lead single nucleotide polymorphism rs3771395 on chromosome 2p13.3 in the VAX2 gene (VAX2 plays an important role in the development of the dorsoventral axis of the eye); [13] Li and associates, however, found no consistent or strong genetic signals for refractive astigmatism while suggesting a possibility of widespread genetic co-susceptibility for spherical and astigmatic refractive errors. They also found that the TOX gene region previously identified for spherical equivalent refractive error was the second most strongly associated region. [14] Another recent follow-up study again had identified four novel loci for corneal astigmatism, with two also being novel loci for astigmatism: ZC3H11B (associated with axial length), NPLOC4 (associated with myopia), LINC00340 (associated with spherical equivalent refractive error) and HERC2 (associated with eye color). [12]

Acquired

Astigmatism may also occur following a cataract surgery or a corneal injury. [15] Contraction of the scar due to wound or cataract extraction causes astigmatism due to flattening of the cornea in one direction. [15] In keratoconus, progressive thinning and steepening of the cornea cause irregular astigmatism. [16]

Pathophysiology

Illustration of astigmatism Astigmatism (Eye).png
Illustration of astigmatism

Axis of the principal meridian

In with-the-rule astigmatism, the eye has too much "plus" cylinder in the horizontal axis relative to the vertical axis (i.e., the eye is too "steep" along the vertical meridian relative to the horizontal meridian). Vertical beams of light focus in front (anterior) to horizontal beams of light, in the eye. This problem may be corrected using spectacles which have a "minus" cylinder placed on this horizontal axis. The effect of this will be that when a vertical beam of light in the distance travels towards the eye, the "minus" cylinder (which is placed with its axis lying horizontally – meaning in line with the patient's horizontal meridian relative to the excessively steep vertical meridian) will cause this vertical beam of light to slightly "diverge", or "spread out vertically", before it reaches the eye. This compensates for the fact that the patient's eye converges light more powerfully in the vertical meridian than the horizontal meridian. Hopefully, after this, the eye will focus all light on the same location at the retina, and the patient's vision will be less blurred.[ medical citation needed ]

In against-the-rule astigmatism, a plus cylinder is added in the horizontal axis (or a minus cylinder in the vertical axis). [18]

Axis is always recorded as an angle in degrees, between 0 and 180 degrees in a counter-clockwise direction. Both 0 and 180 degrees lie on a horizontal line at the level of the center of the pupil, and as seen by an observer, 0 lies on the right of both the eyes.[ medical citation needed ]

Irregular astigmatism, which is often associated with prior ocular surgery or trauma, is also a common naturally occurring condition.[ clarification needed ] [19] The two steep hemimeridians of the cornea, 180° apart in regular astigmatism, may be separated by less than 180° in irregular astigmatism (called nonorthogonal irregular astigmatism); and/or the two steep hemimeridians may be asymmetrically steep—that is, one may be significantly steeper than the other (called asymmetric irregular astigmatism). Irregular astigmatism is quantified by a vector calculation called topographic disparity. [20]

Focus of the principal meridian

With accommodation relaxed:

Throughout the eye

Astigmatism, whether it is regular or irregular, is caused by some combination of external (corneal surface) and internal (posterior corneal surface, human lens, fluids, retina, and eye-brain interface) optical properties. In some people, the external optics may have the greater influence, and in other people, the internal optics may predominate. Importantly, the axes and magnitudes of external and internal astigmatism do not necessarily coincide, but it is the combination of the two that by definition determines the overall optics of the eye. The overall optics of the eye are typically expressed by a person's refraction; the contribution of the external (anterior corneal) astigmatism is measured through the use of techniques such as keratometry and corneal topography. One method analyzes vectors for planning refractive surgery such that the surgery is apportioned optimally between both the refractive and topographic components. [21] [22]

Diagnosis

A number of tests are used during eye examinations to determine the presence of astigmatism and to quantify its amount and axis. A Snellen chart or other eye charts may initially reveal reduced visual acuity. A keratometer may be used to measure the curvature of the steepest and flattest meridians in the cornea's front surface. [23] Corneal topography may also be used to obtain a more accurate representation of the cornea's shape. [24] An autorefractor or retinoscopy may provide an objective estimate of the eye's refractive error and the use of Jackson cross cylinders in a phoropter or trial frame may be used to subjectively refine those measurements. [25] [26] [27] An alternative technique with the phoropter requires the use of a "clock dial" or "sunburst" chart to determine the astigmatic axis and power. [28] [29] A keratometer may also be used to estimate astigmatism by finding the difference in power between the two primary meridians of the cornea. Javal's rule can then be used to compute the estimate of astigmatism.

A method of astigmatism analysis by Alpins may be used to determine both how much surgical change of the cornea is needed and after surgery to determine how close treatment was to the goal. [30]

Another rarely used refraction technique involves the use of a stenopaeic slit (a thin slit aperture) where the refraction is determined in specific meridians – this technique is particularly useful in cases where the patient has a high degree of astigmatism or in refracting patients with irregular astigmatism.

Classification

There are three primary types of astigmatism: myopic astigmatism, hyperopic astigmatism, and mixed astigmatism. Cases can be classified further, such as regular or irregular and lenticular or corneal.

Treatment

Astigmatism may be corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses, or refractive surgery. [1] Glasses are the simplest and safest, although contact lenses can provide a wider field of vision. Refractive surgery can eliminate the need to wear corrective lenses altogether by permanently changing the shape of the eye but, like all elective surgery, comes with both greater risk and expense than the non-invasive options. Various considerations involving eye health, refractive status, and lifestyle determine whether one option may be better than another. In those with keratoconus, certain contact lenses often enable patients to achieve better visual acuity than eyeglasses. Once only available in a rigid, gas-permeable form, toric lenses are now also available as soft lenses.

In older people, astigmatism can also be corrected during cataract surgery. This can either be done by inserting a toric intraocular lens or by performing special incisions (limbal relaxing incisions). Toric intraocular lenses probably provide a better outcome with respect to astigmatism in these cases than limbal relaxing incisions. [31]

Toric intraocular lenses can additionally be used in patients with complex ophthalmic history, such as previous ophthalmic surgery. [32] In such complex cases, toric intraocular lenses seem to be as effective as in non-complex cases for correction of concurrent corneal astigmatism. [32]

Epidemiology

In 2019, the World Health Organization reported that 123.7 million people worldwide were affected by uncorrected refracting errors, including astigmatism. A compilation of many systematic reviews found that there was an 8-62% prevalence of astigmatism among adults, with an estimated prevalence of 40% worldwide. [33] The country with the highest reported prevalence among the compilation of systematic reviews is China at 62%. [33] The prevalence of astigmatism increases with age due to changes in refractive index gradients. [33] [34] According to an American study, nearly three in ten children (28.4%) between the ages of five and seventeen have astigmatism. [35] A Brazilian study published in 2005 found that 34% of the students in one city were astigmatic. [36]

Studies have shown that infants in their first few months have a high prevalence of astigmatism due to a steep cornea. The steepest corneas are found in infants with low birth weights and post-conceptional age. [37] By the age of four, the prevalence of astigmatism has reduced as the cornea flattens. The cornea remains mostly stable during adulthood, and then steepens again in older adulthood (40+ years). [37]

Mild astigmatism has a higher prevalence than moderate and significant astigmatisms and increased until the age of 70, while moderate and significant astigmatisms showed an increase in prevalence after the age of 70. [33] Of the levels of astigmatism, mild astigmatism is most prevalent, making up about 82% of the total reported astigmatisms. [33]

With-the-rule astigmatism (from studies with differing age groups) has a prevalence range of 4 to 98% globally. The prevalence range for against-the-rule astigmatism (from studies with differing age groups) is from 1 to 58%. For oblique astigmatism, the prevalence range is from 2 to 61%. [33] With-the-rule astigmatism is more prevalent in young adults, and over time, the prevalence shifts to be mostly against-the-rule astigmatism. [37] A Polish study published in 2005 revealed "with-the-rule astigmatism" may lead to the onset of myopia. [38]

The main cause of astigmatism is changes in the curvature of the cornea. [37] When left untreated, astigmatism causes people to have a lower vision-related quality of life. Some factors that lead to this are a decrease in vision quality and an increase in glare and haloes. [33] People with astigmatism have more difficulty with night driving and can have a decreased productivity due to errors. However, there are many ways to help correct astigmatisms: The use of glasses or contacts, Toric intraocular lenses, Toric implantable Collamer lenses, and/or corneal refractive surgery have been shown to correct astigmatisms. [33]

History

As a student, Thomas Young discovered that he had problems with one eye in 1793. [39] In the following years, he did research on his vision problems. [40] He presented his findings in a Bakerian Lecture in 1801. [41]

Independent from Young, George Biddell Airy discovered the phenomenon of astigmatism on his own eye. [42] Airy presented his observations on his own eye in February 1825 at the Cambridge Philosophical Society. [43] [44] Airy produced lenses to correct his vision problems by 1825, [42] [45] while other sources put this into 1827 [46] when Airy obtained cylindrical lenses from an optician from Ipswich. [47] The name for the condition was given by William Whewell. [48] [49] [50]

By the 1860s, astigmatism was a well established concept in ophthalmology, [51] and chapters in books described the discovery of astigmatism. [52] [53] [54]

In 1849, Irish English physicist and mathematician George Stokes invented Stokes lens to detect astigmatism. [55] In 1887, American ophthalmologist Edward Jackson revised the Stokes lens concept and made a cross cylinder lens to refine power and axis of astigmatism. [56] In 1907, Jackson described determination of the axis of a correcting cylinder in astigmatism using a cross cylinder. [57]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myopia</span> Problem with distance vision

Myopia, also known as near-sightedness and short-sightedness, is an eye disease where light from distant objects focuses in front of, instead of on, the retina. As a result, distant objects appear blurry while close objects appear normal. Other symptoms may include headaches and eye strain. Severe myopia is associated with an increased risk of macular degeneration, retinal detachment, cataracts, and glaucoma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Keratoconus</span> Medical condition involving the eye

Keratoconus (KC) is a disorder of the eye that results in progressive thinning of the cornea. This may result in blurry vision, double vision, nearsightedness, irregular astigmatism, and light sensitivity leading to poor quality-of-life. Usually both eyes are affected. In more severe cases a scarring or a circle may be seen within the cornea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Farsightedness</span> Eye condition in which light is focused behind instead of on the retina

Far-sightedness, also known as long-sightedness, hypermetropia, and hyperopia, is a condition of the eye where distant objects are seen clearly but near objects appear blurred. This blur is due to incoming light being focused behind, instead of on, the retina due to insufficient accommodation by the lens. Minor hypermetropia in young patients is usually corrected by their accommodation, without any defects in vision. But, due to this accommodative effort for distant vision, people may complain of eye strain during prolonged reading. If the hypermetropia is high, there will be defective vision for both distance and near. People may also experience accommodative dysfunction, binocular dysfunction, amblyopia, and strabismus. Newborns are almost invariably hypermetropic, but it gradually decreases as the newborn gets older.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LASIK</span> Corrective ophthalmological surgery

LASIK or Lasik, commonly referred to as laser eye surgery or laser vision correction, is a type of refractive surgery for the correction of myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism. LASIK surgery is performed by an ophthalmologist who uses a femtosecond laser or a microkeratome to create a corneal flap to expose the corneal stroma and then an excimer laser to reshape the corneal stroma in order to improve visual acuity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Astigmatism (optical systems)</span> Optical aberration

An optical system with astigmatism is one where rays that propagate in two perpendicular planes have different foci. If an optical system with astigmatism is used to form an image of a cross, the vertical and horizontal lines will be in sharp focus at two different distances. The term comes from the Greek α- (a-) meaning "without" and στίγμα (stigma), "a mark, spot, puncture".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radial keratotomy</span> Refractive surgical procedure to correct myopia (nearsightedness

Radial keratotomy (RK) is a refractive surgical procedure to correct myopia (nearsightedness). It was developed in 1974 by Svyatoslav Fyodorov, a Russian ophthalmologist. It has been largely supplanted by newer, more accurate operations, such as photorefractive keratectomy, LASIK, Epi-LASIK and the phakic intraocular lens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Refractive surgery</span> Surgery to treat common vision disorders

Refractive surgery is an optional eye surgery used to improve the refractive state of the eye and decrease or eliminate dependency on glasses or contact lenses. This can include various methods of surgical remodeling of the cornea (keratomileusis), lens implantation or lens replacement. The most common methods today use excimer lasers to reshape the curvature of the cornea. Refractive eye surgeries are used to treat common vision disorders such as myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia and astigmatism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phacoemulsification</span> Method of cataract surgery

Phacoemulsification is a cataract surgery method in which the internal lens of the eye which has developed a cataract is emulsified with the tip of an ultrasonic handpiece and aspirated from the eye. Aspirated fluids are replaced with irrigation of balanced salt solution to maintain the volume of the anterior chamber during the procedure. This procedure minimises the incision size and reduces the recovery time and risk of surgery induced astigmatism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intraocular lens</span> Lens implanted in the eye to treat cataracts or myopia

An Intraocular lens (IOL) is a lens implanted in the eye usually as part of a treatment for cataracts or for correcting other vision problems such as short sightedness and long sightedness; a form of refractive surgery. If the natural lens is left in the eye, the IOL is known as phakic, otherwise it is a pseudophakic lens. Both kinds of IOLs are designed to provide the same light-focusing function as the natural crystalline lens. This can be an alternative to LASIK, but LASIK is not an alternative to an IOL for treatment of cataracts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Refractive error</span> Problem with focusing light accurately on the retina due to the shape of the eye

Refractive error is a problem with focusing light accurately on the retina due to the shape of the eye and/or cornea. The most common types of refractive error are near-sightedness, far-sightedness, astigmatism, and presbyopia. Near-sightedness results in far away objects being blurry, far-sightedness and presbyopia result in close objects being blurry, and astigmatism causes objects to appear stretched out or blurry. Other symptoms may include double vision, headaches, and eye strain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phakic intraocular lens</span> Lens implanted in eye in addition to the natural lens

A phakic intraocular lens (PIOL) is an intraocular lens that is implanted surgically into the eye to correct refractive errors without removing the natural lens. Intraocular lenses that are implanted into eyes after the eye's natural lens has been removed during cataract surgery are known as pseudophakic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cataract surgery</span> Removal of opacified lens from the eye

Cataract surgery, also called lens replacement surgery, is the removal of the natural lens of the eye that has developed a cataract, an opaque or cloudy area. The eye's natural lens is usually replaced with an artificial intraocular lens (IOL) implant.

Aphakia is the absence of the lens of the eye, due to surgical removal, such as in cataract surgery, a perforating wound or ulcer, or congenital anomaly. It causes a loss of ability to maintain focus (accommodation), high degree of farsightedness (hyperopia), and a deep anterior chamber. Complications include detachment of the vitreous or retina, and glaucoma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corneal topography</span> Medical imaging technique

Corneal topography, also known as photokeratoscopy or videokeratography, is a non-invasive medical imaging technique for mapping the anterior curvature of the cornea, the outer structure of the eye. Since the cornea is normally responsible for some 70% of the eye's refractive power, its topography is of critical importance in determining the quality of vision and corneal health.

Aniseikonia is an ocular condition where there is a significant difference in the perceived size of images. It can occur as an overall difference between the two eyes, or as a difference in a particular meridian. If the ocular image size in both eyes are equal, the condition is known as iseikonia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pellucid marginal degeneration</span> Degenerative corneal condition

Pellucid marginal degeneration (PMD) is a degenerative corneal condition, often confused with keratoconus. It typically presents with painless vision loss affecting both eyes. Rarely, it may cause acute vision loss with severe pain due to perforation of the cornea. It is typically characterized by a clear, bilateral thinning (ectasia) in the inferior and peripheral region of the cornea, although some cases affect only one eye. The cause of the disease remains unclear.

The Alpins Method is a system to plan and analyze the results of refractive surgical procedures, such as laser in-situ keratomileus (LASIK). The Alpins Method is also used to plan cataract/toric intraocular lens (IOL) surgical procedures.

The eye, like any other optical system, suffers from a number of specific optical aberrations. The optical quality of the eye is limited by optical aberrations, diffraction and scatter. Correction of spherocylindrical refractive errors has been possible for nearly two centuries following Airy's development of methods to measure and correct ocular astigmatism. It has only recently become possible to measure the aberrations of the eye and with the advent of refractive surgery it might be possible to correct certain types of irregular astigmatism.

The aim of an accurate intraocular lens power calculation is to provide an intraocular lens (IOL) that fits the specific needs and desires of the individual patient. The development of better instrumentation for measuring the eye's axial length (AL) and the use of more precise mathematical formulas to perform the appropriate calculations have significantly improved the accuracy with which the surgeon determines the IOL power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phacolytic glaucoma</span> Medical condition

Phacolytic glaucoma (PG) is a form of glaucoma which is caused due to a leaking mature or immature cataract. Inflammatory glaucoma which occurs in phacolysis is a condition which is a result of the leakage of protein within the lens into the capsule of a mature or hyper mature cataract and involves a simple procedure to be cured that is referred to as cataract extraction.

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  45. ↑ Read, Scott A; Collins, Michael J; Carney, Leo G (2007). "A review of astigmatism and its possible genesis". Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 90 (1): 5–19. doi: 10.1111/j.1444-0938.2007.00112.x . PMID   17177660. S2CID   8876207.
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  56. ↑ Ferrer-Altabás, Sara; Thibos, Larry; Micó, Vicente (14 March 2022). "Astigmatic Stokes lens revisited". Optics Express. 30 (6): 8974–8990. Bibcode:2022OExpr..30.8974F. doi: 10.1364/OE.450062 . ISSN   1094-4087. PMID   35299337. S2CID   245785084.
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