Soda lake

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Lake Shala, in the East African Rift Valley Lake Shalla Landscape.jpg
Lake Shala, in the East African Rift Valley

A soda lake or alkaline lake is a lake on the strongly alkaline side of neutrality, typically with a pH value between 9 and 12. They are characterized by high concentrations of carbonate salts, typically sodium carbonate (and related salt complexes), giving rise to their alkalinity. In addition, many soda lakes also contain high concentrations of sodium chloride and other dissolved salts, making them saline or hypersaline lakes as well. High pH and salinity often coincide, because of how soda lakes develop. [lower-alpha 1] The resulting hypersaline and highly alkalic soda lakes are considered some of the most extreme aquatic environments on Earth. [1]

Contents

In spite of their apparent inhospitability, soda lakes are often highly productive ecosystems, compared to their (pH-neutral) freshwater counterparts. Gross primary production (photosynthesis) rates above 10 g C m−2 day−1 (grams of carbon per square meter per day), over 16 times the global average for lakes and streams (0.6 g C m−2 day−1), have been measured. [2] This makes them the most productive aquatic environments on Earth. An important reason for the high productivity is the virtually unlimited availability of dissolved carbon dioxide.

Soda lakes occur naturally throughout the world (see table below), typically in arid and semi-arid areas and in connection to tectonic rifts like the East African Rift Valley. The pH of most freshwater lakes is on the alkaline side of neutrality and many exhibit similar water chemistries to soda lakes, only less extreme.

Geology, geochemistry and genesis

In order for a lake to become alkalic, a special combination of geographical, geological and climatic conditions are required. First of all, a suitable topography is needed, that limits the outflow of water from the lake. When the outflow is completely prevented, this is called an endorheic basin. Craters or depressions formed by tectonic rifting often provide such topological depressions.
There are exceptions to the "no outlet" rule: both Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika have outlets but also have the characteristics of soda lakes, and Lake Tanganyika even grows microbialites. [3]

The high alkalinity and salinity arise through evaporation of the lake water. This requires suitable climatic conditions, in order for the inflow to balance outflow through evaporation. The rate at which carbonate salts are dissolved into the lake water also depends on the surrounding geology and can in some cases lead to relatively high alkalinity even in lakes with significant outflow.

Tufa columns at Mono Lake, California Mono lake tufa.JPG
Tufa columns at Mono Lake, California

Another critical geological condition for the formation of a soda lake is the relative absence of soluble magnesium or calcium. Otherwise, dissolved magnesium (Mg2+) or calcium (Ca2+) will quickly remove the carbonate ions, through the precipitation of minerals such as calcite, magnesite or dolomite, effectively neutralizing the pH of the lake water. This results in a neutral (or slightly basic) salt lake instead. A good example is the Dead Sea, which is very rich in Mg2+. In some soda lakes, inflow of Ca2+ through subterranean seeps, can lead to localized precipitation. In Mono Lake, California and Lake Van, Turkey, such precipitation has formed columns of tufa rising above the lake surface.

Many soda lakes are strongly stratified, with a well-oxygenated upper layer (epilimnion) and an anoxic lower layer (hypolimnion), without oxygen and often high concentrations of sulfide. Stratification can be permanent, or with seasonal mixing. The depth of the oxic/anoxic interface separating the two layers varies from a few centimeters to near the bottom sediments, depending on local conditions. In either case, it represents an important barrier, both physically and between strongly contrasting biochemical conditions.

Biodiversity

A rich diversity of microbial life inhabit soda lakes, often in dense concentrations. This makes them unusually productive ecosystems and leads to permanent or seasonal "algae blooms" with visible colouration in many lakes. The colour varies between particular lakes, depending on their predominant life forms and can range from green to orange or red. [1]

Compared to freshwater ecosystems, life in soda lakes is often completely dominated by prokaryotes, i.e. bacteria and archaea, particularly in those with more "extreme" conditions (higher alkalinity and salinity, or lower oxygen content). However, a rich diversity of eukaryotic algae, protists and fungi have also been encountered in many soda lakes. [4]

Multicellular animals such as crustaceans (notably the brine shrimp Artemia and the copepod Paradiaptomus africanus ) and fish (e.g. Alcolapia ), are also found in many of the less extreme soda lakes, adapted to the extreme conditions of these alkalic and often saline environments. Particularly in the East African Rift Valley, microorganisms in soda lakes also provide the main food source for vast flocks of the lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor). The cyanobacteria of the genus Arthrospira (formerly Spirulina) are a particularly preferred food source for these birds, owing to their large cell size and high nutritional value. Declines in East African soda lake productivity due to rising water levels threaten this food source. This may force lesser flamingos to move north and south, away from the equator. [5]

Microbial diversity surveys and species richness

Lesser flamingos (Phoenicopterus minor) feeding on cyanobacteria in Lake Nakuru, Kenya Lesser Flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor).jpeg
Lesser flamingos (Phoenicopterus minor) feeding on cyanobacteria in Lake Nakuru, Kenya

In general, the microbial biodiversity of soda lakes is relatively poorly studied. Many studies have focused on the primary producers, namely the photosynthesizing cyanobacteria or eukaryotic algae (see Carbon cycle). As studies have traditionally relied on microscopy, identification has been hindered by the fact that many soda lakes harbour poorly studied species, unique to these relatively unusual habitats and in many cases thought to be endemic, i.e. existing only in one lake. [6] The morphology (appearance) of algae and other organisms may also vary from lake to lake, depending on local conditions, making their identification more difficult, which has probably led to several instances of taxonomic confusions in the scientific literature.

Recently, a number of studies have used molecular methods such as DNA fingerprinting or sequencing to study the diversity of organisms in soda lakes. [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] These methods are based on DNA extracted directly from the environment and thus do not require microorganisms to be cultured. This is a major advantage, as culturing of novel microorganisms is a laborious technique known to seriously bias the outcome of diversity studies, since only about one in a hundred organisms can be cultured using standard techniques. [11] For microorganisms, the phylogenetic marker gene small subunit (SSU) ribosomal RNA is typically targeted, due to its good properties such as existence in all cellular organisms and ability to be used as a "molecular clock" to trace the evolutionary history of an organism. [12] For instance, 16S ribosomal RNA gene clone libraries revealed that the bacterial community of the lake with the highest salinity was characterized by a higher recent accelerated diversification than the community of a freshwater lake, whereas the phylogenetic diversity in the hypersaline lake was lower than that in a freshwater lake. [13] Culture-independent surveys have revealed that the diversity of microorganisms in soda lakes is very high, with species richness (number of species present) of individual lakes often rivaling that of freshwater ecosystems. [13]

Biogeography and uniqueness

In addition to their rich biodiversity, soda lakes often harbour many unique species, adapted to alkalic conditions and unable to live in environments with neutral pH. These are called alkaliphiles . Organisms also adapted to high salinity are called haloalkaliphiles. Culture-independent genetic surveys have shown that soda lakes contain an unusually high amount of alkaliphilic microorganisms with low genetic similarity to known species. [7] [8] [9] [10] This indicates a long evolutionary history of adaptation to these habitats with few new species from other environments becoming adapted over time.

In-depth genetic surveys also show an unusually low overlap in the microbial community present, between soda lakes with slightly different conditions such as pH and salinity. [4] [9] This trend is especially strong in the bottom layer (hypolimnion) of stratified lakes, [6] probably because of the isolated character of such environments. Diversity data from soda lakes suggest the existence of many endemic microbial species, unique to individual lakes. [4] [9] This is a controversial finding, since conventional wisdom in microbial ecology dictates that most microbial species are cosmopolitan and dispersed globally, thanks to their enormous population sizes, a famous hypothesis first formulated by Lourens Baas Becking in 1934 ("Everything is everywhere, but the environment selects"). [14]

Ecology

Carbon cycle

Cyanobacteria of the genus Arthrospira (synonymous to "Spirulina") Spirul2.jpg
Cyanobacteria of the genus Arthrospira (synonymous to "Spirulina")

Photosynthesis provides the primary energy source for life in soda lakes and this process dominates the activity at the surface. The most important photosynthesizers are typically cyanobacteria, but in many less "extreme" soda lakes, eukaryotes such as green algae (Chlorophyta) can also dominate. Major genera of cyanobacteria typically found in soda lakes include Arthrospira (formerly Spirulina) (notably A. platensis), Anabaenopsis, [15] Cyanospira, Synechococcus or Chroococcus. [16] In more saline soda lakes, haloalkaliphilic archaea such as Halobacteria and bacteria such as Halorhodospira dominate photosynthesis. However, it is not clear whether this is an autotrophic process or if these require organic carbon from cyanobacterial blooms, occurring during periods of heavy rainfall that dilute the surface waters. [1]

Below the surface, anoxygenic photosynthesizers using other substances than carbon dioxide for photosynthesis also contribute to primary production in many soda lakes. These include purple sulfur bacteria such as Ectothiorhodospiraceae and purple non-sulfur bacteria such as Rhodobacteraceae (for example the species Rhodobaca bogoriensis isolated from Lake Bogoria [17] ).

The photosynthesizing bacteria provide a food source for a vast diversity of aerobic and anaerobic organotrophic microorganisms from phyla including Pseudomonadota, Bacteroidota, Spirochaetota, Bacillota, Thermotogota, Deinococcota, Planctomycetota, Actinomycetota, Gemmatimonadota , and more. [1] [4] The stepwise anaerobic fermentation of organic compounds originating from the primary producers, results in one-carbon (C1) compounds such as methanol and methylamine.

At the bottom of lakes (in the sediment or hypolimnion, methanogens use these compounds to derive energy, by producing methane, a procedure known as methanogenesis . A diversity of methanogens including the archaeal genera Methanocalculus , Methanolobus , Methanosaeta , Methanosalsus and Methanoculleus have been found in soda lake sediments. [1] [18] When the resulting methane reaches the aerobic water of a soda lake, it can be consumed by methane-oxidizing bacteria such as Methylobacter or Methylomicrobium. [1]

Sulfur cycle

Sulfur-reducing bacteria are common in anoxic layers of soda lakes. These reduce sulfate and organic sulfur from dead cells into sulfide (S2−). Anoxic layers of soda lakes are therefore often rich in sulfide. As opposed to neutral lakes, the high pH prohibits the release of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in gas form. Genera of alkaliphilic sulfur-reducers found in soda lakes include Desulfonatronovibrio and Desulfonatronum. [1] These also play important an ecological role besides in the cycling of sulfur, as they also consume hydrogen, resulting from the fermentation of organic matter.

Sulfur-oxidating bacteria instead derive their energy from oxidation of the sulfide reaching the oxygenated layers of soda lakes. Some of these are photosynthetic sulfur phototrophs, which means that they also require light to derive energy. Examples of alkaliphilic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria are the genera Thioalkalivibrio, Thiorhodospira, Thioalkalimicrobium and Natronhydrogenobacter. [1]

Nitrogen and other nutrients

Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient for growth in many soda lakes, making the internal nitrogen cycle very important for their ecological functioning. [19] One possible source of bio-available nitrogen is diazotrophic cyanobacteria, which can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. However, many of the dominant cyanobacteria found in soda lakes such as Arthrospira are probably not able to fix nitrogen. [1] Ammonia, a nitrogen-containing waste product from degradation of dead cells, can be lost from soda lakes through volatilization because of the high pH. This can hinder nitrification, in which ammonia is "recycled" to the bio-available form nitrate. However, ammonia oxidation seems to be efficiently carried out in soda lakes in either case, probably by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria as well as Thaumarchaea. [19]

List of soda lakes

Pangong Lake, India and Tibet, China Pangong Tso lake.jpg
Pangong Lake, India and Tibet, China
Astronaut photograph of the mostly dry bed of Owens Lake, California, US Owens Lake, California.JPG
Astronaut photograph of the mostly dry bed of Owens Lake, California, US
2010 satellite image of Sambhar Salt Lake, India Sambhar Salt LakeWW.jpg
2010 satellite image of Sambhar Salt Lake, India
Lake Eyasi, Tanzania Lake Eyasi, Tanzania satellite image.png
Lake Eyasi, Tanzania
Flamingos feeding at Lake Nakuru, Kenya Flamingos at lake Nakuru.jpg
Flamingos feeding at Lake Nakuru, Kenya
Lake Turkana, Kenya Lake turkana.jpg
Lake Turkana, Kenya
Satonda Island lake, Indonesia Salt Lake Satonda.jpg
Satonda Island lake, Indonesia
Niuafo'ou lake, Tonga Satellite view of Niuafo'ou, 2005-03-19.jpg
Niuafo'ou lake, Tonga
Lake Specchio di Venere, Pantelleria island, Italy Lago-di-venere.jpg
Lake Specchio di Venere, Pantelleria island, Italy

The following table lists some examples of soda lakes by region, listing country, pH and salinity. NA indicates 'data not available':

ContinentNameCountrypHSalinity
Africa Lake Ngami [ citation needed ]Botswana
Sua Pan Botswana19%
Rombou LakeChad10.2 [20] 2%[ citation needed ]
Wadi El Natrun lakesEgypt9.55%
Lake Arenguadi (Green Lake)Ethiopia9.5–9.9 [4] 0.25%[ citation needed ]
Lake Basaka Ethiopia9.6 [4] 0.3%[ citation needed ]
Lake Shala Ethiopia9.8 [4] 1.8%[ citation needed ]
Lake Abijatta Ethiopia9.9 [4] 3.4%[ citation needed ]
Lake ChituEthiopia10.3 [4] 5.8%[ citation needed ]
Lake Bogoria Kenya10.53.5%[ citation needed ]
Empakai Crater lake [3] Kenya
Lake Logipi Kenya9.5–10.52–5%[ citation needed ]
Lake Magadi Kenya10>10%[ citation needed ]
Lake Nakuru Kenya10.5[ citation needed ]NA
Lake Sonachi (Crater Lake)[ citation needed ]KenyaNANA
Lake Turkana Kenya8.5–9.2 [21] 0.25%[ citation needed ]
Malha Crater LakeSudan9.5–10.3[ citation needed ]NA
Lake Balangida [ citation needed ]TanzaniaNANA
Lake Eyasi Tanzania9.3 [22] 0.5%[ citation needed ]
Lake Manyara Tanzania9.5–10 [22] NA
Momela Lakes Tanzania9.722%
Lake Natron Tanzania9–10.5>10%[ citation needed ]
Lake Rukwa Tanzania8–9 [22] NA
AsiaGuozha lake[ citation needed ]ChinaNANA
Qinghai Lake China9.3 [23] 2.2%[ citation needed ]
Lake Zabuye (Drangyer)China10[ citation needed ]NA
Kartsakhi Lake Georgia/Turkey NA0.09%
Khyagar Lake [20] India9.50.6%[ citation needed ]
Kushul lakeIndiaNANA
Lonar Lake (Crater Lake)India9.5–10.5 [7] 1%[ citation needed ]
Namucuo LakeIndia9.4 [23] 0.2%[ citation needed ]
Sambhar Salt Lake India9.57%[ citation needed ]
Tso Kar Salt Lake India8.8[ citation needed ]NA
Tso Moriri Salt Lake India9.0[ citation needed ]NA
Aksayqin Hu Lake Aksai Chin, India/ChinaNANA [24]
Lake Hongshan Hu[ citation needed ]Aksai Chin, India/ChinaNANA
Pangong Lake India & China9.40.9% [25]
Spanggur Tso (Pongur Tso)[ citation needed ]India & ChinaNANA
Surigh Yilganing Kol [ citation needed ] Aksai Chin, India/ChinaNANA
Tianshuihai lake[ citation needed ]Aksai Chin, India/ChinaNANA
North Tianshuihai lakeAksai Chin, India/ChinaNANA
Tso Tang Lake[ citation needed ]Aksai Chin, India/ChinaNANA
Satonda Island Indonesia8.55
Kulunda Steppe lakes (Borli)Kazakhstan8.89-9.165.7% [26]
Kulunda St. (Petukhovo)Russia9.8-10.1 [27]
Kulunda St. (Uyaly)Kazakhstan9.47-9.502.7% [26]
Taboos-nor[ citation needed ]MongoliaNANA
Lake KhatynRussia10[ citation needed ]NA
Torey Lakes Russia, MongoliaNANA
Lake Salda [ citation needed ]TurkeyNANA
Lake Van Turkey9.7–9.82.3%[ citation needed ]
Europe Lake Neusiedl (Fertő)Austria, Hungary9–9.3 [28] NA
Böddi-székHungary8.8–9.8 [28] 12.34% [29]
Lake Fehér (Szeged) [ citation needed ]HungaryNANA
Kelemen-székHungary9–9.7 [28] [30] NA
Nagy-Vadas [30] HungaryNANA
Specchio di Venere [3] [31] (Pantelleria Island)Italy
Velika Rusanda [32] Serbia9.3 [28] NA
Malham Tarn UK8.0–8.6 [33] [34] NA
North America Manitou Lake,[ citation needed ] Saskatchewan CanadaNANA
Deer Lake [35] (Cariboo Plateau, British Columbia)Canada
Goodenough Lake [35] (Bonaparte Plateau, British Columbia)Canada10.2[ citation needed ]NA
Last Chance Lake [35] (Bonaparte Plateau, British Columbia)Canada
Probe Lake [35] (Cariboo Plateau, British Columbia)Canada
Lake Texcoco Mexico8.8–11.58%[ citation needed ]
Lake AlchichicaMexico8.9[ citation needed ]NA
Alkali Lake, Oregon US11[ citation needed ]NA
Baldwin Lake,[ citation needed ] California USNANA
Borax Lake, OregonUSNANA
Kauhako Crater Lake, [3] Molokai, Hawaii US
Mono Lake, CaliforniaUS9.8 [19] 8%[ citation needed ]
Owens Lake, California[ citation needed ]USNANA
Soap Lake, Washington US9.70.7%[ citation needed ]
Soda Lakes, Nevada US9.7[ citation needed ]NA
Summer Lake, Oregon[ citation needed ]USNANA
South America Antofagasta Lake[ citation needed ]ChileNANA
Oceania Niuafoʻou Caldera Lake [3] Tonga
Lake Werowrap [20] Australia9.84%[ citation needed ]

Industrial use

Many water-soluble chemicals are extracted from the soda lake waters worldwide. Lithium carbonate (see Lake Zabuye), potash (see lake Lop Nur and Qinghai Salt Lake Potash), soda ash (see Lake Abijatta and Lake Natron), etc. are extracted in large quantities. Lithium carbonate is a raw material in production of lithium which has applications in lithium storage batteries widely used in modern electronic gadgets and electrically powered automobiles. Water of some soda lakes are rich in dissolved uranium carbonate. [36] Algaculture is carried out on a commercial scale with soda lake water.

See also

Explanatory notes

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stromatolite</span> Layered sedimentary structure formed by the growth of bacteria or algae

Stromatolites or stromatoliths are layered sedimentary formations (microbialite) that are created mainly by photosynthetic microorganisms such as cyanobacteria, sulfate-reducing bacteria, and Pseudomonadota. These microorganisms produce adhesive compounds that cement sand and other rocky materials to form mineral "microbial mats". In turn, these mats build up layer by layer, growing gradually over time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyanobacteria</span> Phylum of photosynthesising prokaryotes

Cyanobacteria, also called Cyanobacteriota or Cyanophyta, are a phylum of autotrophic gram-negative bacteria that can obtain biological energy via oxygenic photosynthesis. The name "cyanobacteria" refers to their bluish green (cyan) color, which forms the basis of cyanobacteria's informal common name, blue-green algae, although as prokaryotes they are not scientifically classified as algae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomicrobiology</span> Intersection of microbiology and geology

Geomicrobiology is the scientific field at the intersection of geology and microbiology and is a major subfield of geobiology. It concerns the role of microbes on geological and geochemical processes and effects of minerals and metals to microbial growth, activity and survival. Such interactions occur in the geosphere, the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. Geomicrobiology studies microorganisms that are driving the Earth's biogeochemical cycles, mediating mineral precipitation and dissolution, and sorbing and concentrating metals. The applications include for example bioremediation, mining, climate change mitigation and public drinking water supplies.

The purple sulfur bacteria (PSB) are part of a group of Pseudomonadota capable of photosynthesis, collectively referred to as purple bacteria. They are anaerobic or microaerophilic, and are often found in stratified water environments including hot springs, stagnant water bodies, as well as microbial mats in intertidal zones. Unlike plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, purple sulfur bacteria do not use water as their reducing agent, and therefore do not produce oxygen. Instead, they can use sulfur in the form of sulfide, or thiosulfate (as well, some species can use H2, Fe2+, or NO2−) as the electron donor in their photosynthetic pathways. The sulfur is oxidized to produce granules of elemental sulfur. This, in turn, may be oxidized to form sulfuric acid.

Heliobacteria are a unique subset of prokaryotic bacteria that process light for energy. Distinguishable from other phototrophic bacteria, they utilize a unique photosynthetic pigment, bacteriochlorophyll g and are the only known Gram-positive phototroph. They are a key player in symbiotic nitrogen fixation alongside plants, and use a type I reaction center like green-sulfur bacteria.

Photoheterotrophs are heterotrophic phototrophs—that is, they are organisms that use light for energy, but cannot use carbon dioxide as their sole carbon source. Consequently, they use organic compounds from the environment to satisfy their carbon requirements; these compounds include carbohydrates, fatty acids, and alcohols. Examples of photoheterotrophic organisms include purple non-sulfur bacteria, green non-sulfur bacteria, and heliobacteria. These microorganisms are ubiquitous in aquatic habitats, occupy unique niche-spaces, and contribute to global biogeochemical cycling. Recent research has also indicated that the oriental hornet and some aphids may be able to use light to supplement their energy supply.

Microbial metabolism is the means by which a microbe obtains the energy and nutrients it needs to live and reproduce. Microbes use many different types of metabolic strategies and species can often be differentiated from each other based on metabolic characteristics. The specific metabolic properties of a microbe are the major factors in determining that microbe's ecological niche, and often allow for that microbe to be useful in industrial processes or responsible for biogeochemical cycles.

The microbial food web refers to the combined trophic interactions among microbes in aquatic environments. These microbes include viruses, bacteria, algae, heterotrophic protists. In aquatic ecosystems, microbial food webs are essential because they form the basis for the cycling of nutrients and energy. These webs are vital to the stability and production of ecosystems in a variety of aquatic environments, including lakes, rivers, and oceans. By converting dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and other nutrients into biomass that larger organisms may eat, microbial food webs maintain higher trophic levels. Thus, these webs are crucial for energy flow and nutrient cycling in both freshwater and marine ecosystems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microbial mat</span> Multi-layered sheet of microorganisms

A microbial mat is a multi-layered sheet or biofilm of microbial colonies, composed of mainly bacteria and/or archaea. Microbial mats grow at interfaces between different types of material, mostly on submerged or moist surfaces, but a few survive in deserts. A few are found as endosymbionts of animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lonar Lake</span> Lake in India

Lonar Lake, also known as Lonar crater, is a saline, soda lake, located at Lonar, 79 km from Buldhana city in Buldhana district, Maharashtra, India. It is a notified National Geo-heritage Monument.

Sulfur is metabolized by all organisms, from bacteria and archaea to plants and animals. Sulfur can have an oxidation state from -2 to +6 and is reduced or oxidized by a diverse range of organisms. The element is present in proteins, sulfate esters of polysaccharides, steroids, phenols, and sulfur-containing coenzymes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bacterioplankton</span> Bacterial component of the plankton that drifts in the water column

Bacterioplankton refers to the bacterial component of the plankton that drifts in the water column. The name comes from the Ancient Greek word πλανκτος, meaning "wanderer" or "drifter", and bacterium, a Latin term coined in the 19th century by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg. They are found in both seawater and freshwater.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine microorganisms</span> Any life form too small for the naked human eye to see that lives in a marine environment

Marine microorganisms are defined by their habitat as microorganisms living in a marine environment, that is, in the saltwater of a sea or ocean or the brackish water of a coastal estuary. A microorganism is any microscopic living organism or virus, which is invisibly small to the unaided human eye without magnification. Microorganisms are very diverse. They can be single-celled or multicellular and include bacteria, archaea, viruses, and most protozoa, as well as some fungi, algae, and animals, such as rotifers and copepods. Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages. Some microbiologists also classify viruses as microorganisms, but others consider these as non-living.

Soil microbiology is the study of microorganisms in soil, their functions, and how they affect soil properties. It is believed that between two and four billion years ago, the first ancient bacteria and microorganisms came about on Earth's oceans. These bacteria could fix nitrogen, in time multiplied, and as a result released oxygen into the atmosphere. This led to more advanced microorganisms, which are important because they affect soil structure and fertility. Soil microorganisms can be classified as bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae and protozoa. Each of these groups has characteristics that define them and their functions in soil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microbiologically induced calcite precipitation</span> Bio-geochemical process

Microbiologically induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) is a bio-geochemical process that induces calcium carbonate precipitation within the soil matrix. Biomineralization in the form of calcium carbonate precipitation can be traced back to the Precambrian period. Calcium carbonate can be precipitated in three polymorphic forms, which in the order of their usual stabilities are calcite, aragonite and vaterite. The main groups of microorganisms that can induce the carbonate precipitation are photosynthetic microorganisms such as cyanobacteria and microalgae; sulfate-reducing bacteria; and some species of microorganisms involved in nitrogen cycle. Several mechanisms have been identified by which bacteria can induce the calcium carbonate precipitation, including urea hydrolysis, denitrification, sulfate production, and iron reduction. Two different pathways, or autotrophic and heterotrophic pathways, through which calcium carbonate is produced have been identified. There are three autotrophic pathways, which all result in depletion of carbon dioxide and favouring calcium carbonate precipitation. In heterotrophic pathway, two metabolic cycles can be involved: the nitrogen cycle and the sulfur cycle. Several applications of this process have been proposed, such as remediation of cracks and corrosion prevention in concrete, biogrout, sequestration of radionuclides and heavy metals.

Arsenate-reducing bacteria are bacteria which reduce arsenates. Arsenate-reducing bacteria are ubiquitous in arsenic-contaminated groundwater (aqueous environment). Arsenates are salts or esters of arsenic acid (H3AsO4), consisting of the ion AsO43−. They are moderate oxidizers that can be reduced to arsenites and to arsine. Arsenate can serve as a respiratory electron acceptor for oxidation of organic substrates and H2S or H2. Arsenates occur naturally in minerals such as adamite, alarsite, legrandite, and erythrite, and as hydrated or anhydrous arsenates. Arsenates are similar to phosphates since arsenic (As) and phosphorus (P) occur in group 15 (or VA) of the periodic table. Unlike phosphates, arsenates are not readily lost from minerals due to weathering. They are the predominant form of inorganic arsenic in aqueous aerobic environments. On the other hand, arsenite is more common in anaerobic environments, more mobile, and more toxic than arsenate. Arsenite is 25–60 times more toxic and more mobile than arsenate under most environmental conditions. Arsenate can lead to poisoning, since it can replace inorganic phosphate in the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate --> 1,3-biphosphoglycerate step of glycolysis, producing 1-arseno-3-phosphoglycerate instead. Although glycolysis continues, 1 ATP molecule is lost. Thus, arsenate is toxic due to its ability to uncouple glycolysis. Arsenate can also inhibit pyruvate conversion into acetyl-CoA, thereby blocking the TCA cycle, resulting in additional loss of ATP.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microbialite</span> Sedimentary precipitation of carbonate induced by microbes

Microbialite is a benthic sedimentary deposit made of carbonate mud that is formed with the mediation of microbes. The constituent carbonate mud is a type of automicrite ; therefore, it precipitates in situ instead of being transported and deposited. Being formed in situ, a microbialite can be seen as a type of boundstone where reef builders are microbes, and precipitation of carbonate is biotically induced instead of forming tests, shells or skeletons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine prokaryotes</span> Marine bacteria and marine archaea

Marine prokaryotes are marine bacteria and marine archaea. They are defined by their habitat as prokaryotes that live in marine environments, that is, in the saltwater of seas or oceans or the brackish water of coastal estuaries. All cellular life forms can be divided into prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes, whereas prokaryotes are the organisms that do not have a nucleus enclosed within a membrane. The three-domain system of classifying life adds another division: the prokaryotes are divided into two domains of life, the microscopic bacteria and the microscopic archaea, while everything else, the eukaryotes, become the third domain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laguna Negra, Catamarca</span> Lake in Catamarca Province, Argentina

Laguna Negra is a lake in the Catamarca Province of Argentina. It lies on the Puna high plateau next to two other lakes and salt flats. The lake is less than 2 metres deep and forms a rough rectangle with a surface of 8.6 square kilometres (3.3 sq mi). Laguna Negra loses its water through evaporation, and is replenished through surface runoff and groundwater which ultimately originate to a large part from snowmelt. The waters of the lake are salty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sponge microbiomes</span>

Sponge microbiomes are diverse communities of microorganisms in symbiotic association with marine sponges as their hosts. These microorganisms include bacteria, archaea, fungi, viruses, among others. The sponges have the ability to filter seawater and recycle nutrients while providing a safe habitat to many microorganisms, which provide the sponge host with fixed nitrogen and carbon, and stimulates the immune system. Together, a sponge and its microbiome form a holobiont, with a single sponge often containing more than 40 bacterial phyla, making sponge microbial environments a diverse and dense community. Furthermore, individual holobionts work hand in hand with other near holobionts becoming a nested ecosystem, affecting the environment at multiple scales.

References

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  2. ↑ Melack, JM; Kilham, P (1974). "Photosynthetic rates of phytoplankton in East African alkaline, saline lakes". Limnol. Oceanogr. 19 (5): 743–755. Bibcode:1974LimOc..19..743M. doi:10.4319/lo.1974.19.5.0743 . Retrieved 2024-07-05.
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  33. ↑ Bradley, P. (March 2002). White-clawed Crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes) at Craven limestone complex SAC, North Yorkshire (The Malham Tarn Research Seminar, 16–18 November 2001). Past, present, future. Monitoring and Managing Change at Malham Tarn. Field Studies Council. Archived from the original on 18 October 2008. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
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