Sidewalk

Last updated

Raised sidewalk with stone curbs beside a 2000-year-old paved road in Pompeii, Italy PompeiiStreet.jpg
Raised sidewalk with stone curbs beside a 2000-year-old paved road in Pompeii, Italy

A sidewalk (American English and Canadian English), [1] [2] [3] pavement (British English), [4] footpath in Australia, India, New Zealand and Ireland, or footway is a path along the side of a road. Usually constructed of concrete, pavers, brick, stone, or asphalt, it is designed for pedestrians. [5] A sidewalk is normally higher than the roadway, and separated from it by a kerb (spelled "curb" in North America). There may also be a planted strip between the sidewalk and the roadway and between the roadway and the adjacent land.

Contents

In some places, the same term may also be used for a paved path, trail or footpath that is not next to a road, such as a path through a park.

Terminology

The term "sidewalk" is preferred in most of the USA [1] & Canada. [2] [3] The term "pavement" is more common in the United Kingdom [6] and other members of the Commonwealth of Nations, as well as parts of the Mid-Atlantic United States such as Philadelphia and parts of New Jersey. [7] [8] Many Commonwealth countries use the term "footpath". The professional, civil engineering and legal term for this in the USA and Canada is "sidewalk" while in the United Kingdom it is "pavement". [9]

In the United States, the term sidewalk is used for the pedestrian path beside a road. "Shared use paths" or "multi-use paths" are available for use by both pedestrians and bicyclists. [10] "Walkway" is a more comprehensive term that includes stairs, ramps, passageways, and related structures that facilitate the use of a path as well as the sidewalk. [11] In the UK, the term "footpath" is mostly used for paths that do not abut a roadway. [12] The term "shared-use path" is used where cyclists are also able to use the same section of path as pedestrians. [13]

History

East India House, Leadenhall Street, London, 1766. The sidewalk is separated from the main street by six bollards in front of the building. E India House.jpg
East India House, Leadenhall Street, London, 1766. The sidewalk is separated from the main street by six bollards in front of the building.
Raised wooden sidewalk by a dirt road, Staten Island, N.Y., early 20th century Lower Ocean Avenue, Oakwood Beach, Staten Island, N.Y. (beach cottages, people walking on raised sidewalk) (NYPL b15279351-105077) (cropped).tiff
Raised wooden sidewalk by a dirt road, Staten Island, N.Y., early 20th century

Sidewalks have operated for at least 4,000 years. [14] The Greek city of Corinth had sidewalks by the 4th-century BC, and the Romans built sidewalks – they called them sēmitae . [15]

However, by the Middle Ages, narrow roads had reverted to being simultaneously used by pedestrians and wagons without any formal separation between the two categories. Early attempts at ensuring the adequate maintenance of foot-ways or sidewalks were often made,[ why? ] as in the Colchester Improvement Act 1623 (21 Jas. 1. c. 34) for Colchester, but they were generally not very effective. [16]

Following the Great Fire of London in 1666, attempts were slowly made to bring some order to the sprawling city. In 1671, "Certain Orders, Rules and Directions Touching the Paving and Cleansing The Streets, Lanes and Common Passages within the City of London" were formulated, calling for all streets to be adequately paved for pedestrians with cobblestones. Purbeck stone was widely used as a durable paving material. Bollards were also installed to protect pedestrians from the traffic in the middle of the road.

The British House of Commons passed a series of Paving Acts from the 18th century. The 1766 Paving & Lighting Act authorized the City of London Corporation to establish foot-ways throughout all the streets of London, to pave them with Purbeck stone (the thoroughfare in the middle was generally cobblestone) and to raise them above the street level with kerbs forming the separation. [17] The corporation was also made responsible for the regular upkeep of the roads, including their cleaning and repair, for which they charged a tax from 1766. [18] Another turning point was the construction of Paris's Pont Neuf (1578–1606) which set several trends including wide, raised sidewalks separating pedestrians from the road traffic, plus the first Parisian bridge without houses built on it, and its generous width plus elegant, durable design that immediately became popular for promenading at the beginning of the century that saw Paris take its form renowned to this day. It was also a cultural phenomenon because all classes mixed on the new walkways. By the 19th-century large and spacious sidewalks were routinely constructed in European capitals, and were associated with urban sophistication.

Benefits

Transportation

Pedestrians walking on the sidewalk, locally known as a "pavement" in London. Old Bond Street 1a db.jpg
Pedestrians walking on the sidewalk, locally known as a "pavement" in London.
Sidewalk at Kauppakatu in Tampere, Finland. Tampere - Kauppakatu.jpg
Sidewalk at Kauppakatu in Tampere, Finland.

Sidewalks played an important role in transportation, as they provided a path for people to walk along without stepping on horse manure. They aided road safety by minimizing interaction between pedestrians, horses, carriages, and later automobiles. Sidewalks are normally in pairs, one on each side of the road, with the center section of the road for motorized vehicles. Crosswalks provide pedestrians a space to cross between the two sides of the street at predictable locations.

On rural roads, sidewalks may not be present as the amount of traffic (pedestrian or motorized) may not be enough to justify separating the two. In suburban and urban areas, sidewalks are more common. In town and city centers (known as downtown in the USA) the amount of pedestrian traffic can exceed motorized traffic, and in this case the sidewalks can occupy more than half of the width of the road, or the whole road can be pedestrianized.

Environment

Sidewalks may have a small effect on reducing vehicle miles traveled and carbon dioxide emissions. A study of sidewalk and transit investments in Seattle neighborhoods found vehicle travel reductions of 6 to 8% and CO2 emission reductions of 1.3 to 2.2% [19]

Road traffic safety

Sidewalk with bike path Sidewalk with bike path.JPG
Sidewalk with bike path

Research commissioned for the Florida Department of Transportation, published in 2005, found that, in Florida, the Crash Reduction Factor (used to estimate the expected reduction of crashes during a given period) resulting from the installation of sidewalks averaged 74%. [20] Research at the University of North Carolina for the U.S. Department of Transportation found that the presence or absence of a sidewalk and the speed limit are significant factors in the likelihood of a vehicle/pedestrian crash. Sidewalk presence had a risk ratio of 0.118, which means that the likelihood of a crash on a road with a paved sidewalk was 88.2 percent lower than one without a sidewalk. The authors wrote that "this should not be interpreted to mean that installing sidewalks would necessarily reduce the likelihood of pedestrian/motor vehicle crashes by 88.2 percent in all situations. However, the presence of a sidewalk clearly has a strong beneficial effect of reducing the risk of a 'walking along roadway' pedestrian/motor vehicle crash." The study does not count crashes that happen when walking across a roadway. The speed limit risk ratio was 1.116, which means that a 16.1-km/h (10-mi/h) increase in the limit yields a factor of (1.116)10 or 3. [21]

The presence or absence of sidewalks was one of three factors that were found to encourage drivers to choose lower, safer speeds. [22]

On the other hand, the implementation of schemes which involve the removal of sidewalks, such as shared space schemes, are reported to deliver a dramatic drop in crashes and congestion too, which indicates that a number of other factors, such as the local speed environment, also play an important role in whether sidewalks are necessarily the best local solution for pedestrian safety. [23]

In cold weather, black ice is a common problem with unsalted sidewalks. The ice forms a thin transparent surface film which is almost impossible to see, and so results in many slips by pedestrians.

Riding bicycles on sidewalks is discouraged since some research shows it to be more dangerous than riding in the street. [24] Some jurisdictions prohibit sidewalk riding except for children. In addition to the risk of cyclist/pedestrian collisions, cyclists face increase risks from collisions with motor vehicles at street crossings and driveways. Riding in the direction opposite to traffic in the adjacent lane is especially risky. [25]

Health

Since residents of neighborhoods with sidewalks are more likely to walk, they tend to have lower rates of cardiovascular disease, obesity, and other health issues related to sedentary lifestyles. [26] Also, children who walk to school have been shown to have better concentration. [27]

Social uses

Native Americans busking at Orchard Road, Singapore Orchard Road street busking.JPG
Native Americans busking at Orchard Road, Singapore

Some sidewalks may be used as social spaces with sidewalk cafés, markets, or busking musicians, as well as for parking for a variety of vehicles including cars, motorbikes and bicycles. Sidewalk surfing was often used in the early 1960s to describe skateboarding. [28] )

Construction

Contemporary sidewalks are most often made of concrete in North America, while tarmac, asphalt, brick, stone, slab and (increasingly) rubber are more common in Europe. [29] Different materials are more or less friendly environmentally: pumice-based trass, for example, when used as an extender is less energy-intensive than Portland cement concrete or petroleum-based materials such as asphalt or tar-penetration macadam. Multi-use paths alongside roads are sometimes made of materials that are softer than concrete, such as asphalt.

Some sidewalks may be built like a Meandering Sidewalk. The meandering sidewalk is the wavy sidewalk that veers back and forth at the side of the road, no matter how straight the street. These sidewalks are common in North America and are used to break up the monotonous alignments of city blocks.

Wood

In the 19th century and early 20th century, sidewalks of wood were common in some North American locations. They may still be found at historic beach locations and in conservation areas to protect the land beneath and around, called boardwalks.

Brick

Brick sidewalks are found in some urban areas, usually for aesthetic purposes. Brick sidewalks are generally consolidated with brick hammers, rollers, and sometimes motorized vibrators.

Stone

Stone slab sidewalk Stone slab sidewalk.jpg
Stone slab sidewalk

Stone slabs called flagstones or flags are sometimes used where an attractive appearance is required, as in historic town centers.

For example, in Melbourne, Australia, bluestone has been used to pave the sidewalks of the CBD since the Gold rush in the 1850s because it proved to be stronger, more plentiful and easier to work than most other available materials.

Stone and concrete pavers

Sidewalk construction.JPG
Installation of crushed stone underlayment for drainage
Sidewalk construction 2.JPG
Installation of paver blocks

Pre-cast concrete pavers are used for sidewalks, often colored or textured to resemble stone. Sometimes cobblestones are used, though they are generally considered too uneven for comfortable walking.

Concrete

Concrete sidewalk with horizontal strain-relief grooves 2014-06-12 10 38 10 Fresh sidewalk along U.S. Route 95 (West Winnemucca Boulevard) near Melarkey Street and Nevada State Route 289 (Winnemucca Boulevard) in Winnemucca, Nevada.JPG
Concrete sidewalk with horizontal strain-relief grooves

In the United States and Canada, the most common type of sidewalk consists of a poured concrete "ribbon", examples of which from as early as the 1860s can be found in good repair in San Francisco, and stamped with the name of the contractor and date of installation.[ citation needed ] When Portland cement was first imported to the United States in the 1880s, its principal use was in the construction of sidewalks. [30]

Today, most sidewalk ribbons are constructed with cross-lying strain-relief grooves placed or sawn at regular intervals, typically 5 feet (1.5 m) apart. This partitioning, an improvement over the continuous slab ribbon, was patented in 1924 by Arthur Wesley Hall and William Alexander McVay, who wished to minimize damage to the concrete from the effects of tectonic and temperature fluctuations, both of which can crack longer segments. [31] The technique is not perfect, as freeze-thaw cycles (in cold-winter regions) and tree root growth can eventually result in damage which requires repair.

In highly variable climates which undergo multiple freeze-thaw cycles, concrete blocks will be formed with separations, called expansion joints, to allow for thermal expansion without breakage. The use of expansion joints in sidewalks may not be necessary, as the concrete will shrink while setting. [32]

Tarmac and asphalt

In the United Kingdom, Australia and France suburban sidewalks are most commonly constructed of tarmac. In urban or inner-city areas sidewalks are most commonly constructed of slabs, stone, or brick depending upon the surrounding street architecture and furniture.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Road</span> Land route

A road is a thoroughfare for the conveyance of traffic that mostly has an improved surface for use by vehicles and pedestrians. Unlike streets, whose primary function is to serve as public spaces, the main function of roads is transportation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pedestrian crossing</span> Place designated for pedestrians to cross a road, street or avenue

A pedestrian crossing is a place designated for pedestrians to cross a road, street or avenue. The term "pedestrian crossing" is also used in the Vienna and Geneva Conventions, both of which pertain to road signs and road traffic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pedestrian</span> Person traveling on foot

A pedestrian is a person traveling on foot, whether walking or running. In modern times, the term usually refers to someone walking on a road or pavement, but this was not the case historically. Pedestrians may also be wheelchair users or other disabled people who use mobility aids.

Pavement(s) or paving may refer to:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Street</span> Public thoroughfare in a built environment

A street is a public thoroughfare in a built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as tarmac, concrete, cobblestone or brick. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Road surface</span> Road covered with durable surface material

A road surface or pavement is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic, such as a road or walkway. In the past, gravel road surfaces, macadam, hoggin, cobblestone and granite setts were extensively used, but these have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete laid on a compacted base course. Asphalt mixtures have been used in pavement construction since the beginning of the 20th century and are of two types: metalled (hard-surfaced) and unmetalled roads. Metalled roadways are made to sustain vehicular load and so are usually made on frequently used roads. Unmetalled roads, also known as gravel roads or dirt roads, are rough and can sustain less weight. Road surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Road traffic safety</span> Methods and measures for reducing the risk of death and injury on roads

Road traffic safety refers to the methods and measures used to prevent road users from being killed or seriously injured. Typical road users include pedestrians, cyclists, motorists, vehicle passengers, and passengers of on-road public transport.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Permeable paving</span> Roads built with water-pervious materials

Permeable paving surfaces are made of either a porous material that enables stormwater to flow through it or nonporous blocks spaced so that water can flow between the gaps. Permeable paving can also include a variety of surfacing techniques for roads, parking lots, and pedestrian walkways. Permeable pavement surfaces may be composed of; pervious concrete, porous asphalt, paving stones, or interlocking pavers. Unlike traditional impervious paving materials such as concrete and asphalt, permeable paving systems allow stormwater to percolate and infiltrate through the pavement and into the aggregate layers and/or soil below. In addition to reducing surface runoff, permeable paving systems can trap suspended solids, thereby filtering pollutants from stormwater.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cobblestone</span> Natural stones for surfacing roads and buildings

Cobblestone is a natural building material based on cobble-sized stones, and is used for pavement roads, streets, and buildings. Setts, also called Belgian blocks, are often referred to as "cobbles", although a sett is distinct from a cobblestone by being quarried and shaped into a regular form, while cobblestones are naturally occurring forms less uniform in size.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bike lane</span> Road traffic lane for cyclists

Bike lanes (US) or cycle lanes (UK) are types of bikeways (cycleways) with lanes on the roadway for cyclists only. In the United Kingdom, an on-road cycle-lane can be firmly restricted to cycles or advisory. In the United States, a designated bicycle lane or class II bikeway (Caltrans) is always marked by a solid white stripe on the pavement and is for 'preferential use' by bicyclists. There is also a class III bicycle route, which has roadside signs suggesting a route for cyclists, and urging sharing the road. A class IV separated bike way (Caltrans) is a bike lane that is physically separate from motor traffic and restricted to bicyclists only.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Driveway</span> Type of private road for local access to one or a small group of structures

A driveway is a private road for local access to one or a small group of structures owned and maintained by an individual or group.

A thoroughfare is a primary passage or way of transport, whether by road on dry land or, by extension, via watercraft or aircraft. Originally, the word referred to a main road or open street which was frequented thoroughly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Curb</span> Edge where a sidewalk meets a road

A curb or kerb is the edge where a raised sidewalk or road median/central reservation meets a street or other roadway.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Motorized scooter</span> Powered stand-up scooter

A motorized scooter is a stand-up scooter powered by either a small internal combustion engine or electric hub motor in its front and/or rear wheel. Classified as a form of micromobility, they are generally designed with a large center deck on which the rider stands. The first motorized scooter was manufactured by Autoped in 1915.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tactile paving</span> Textured ground surface indicators to assist blind people

Tactile paving is a system of textured ground surface indicators found at roadsides, by and on stairs, and on railway station platforms, to assist pedestrians who are visually impaired.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Truck apron</span> Region of a roundabout or slip lane which allows long vehicles to turn

Truck aprons are found at roundabouts and slip lanes. These allow large vehicles—trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles—to navigate the roundabout or turn without striking fixed objects or other road users.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Road collision types</span> Overview of the various types of road traffic collision

Road traffic collisions generally fall into one of five common types:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shared-use path</span> Pathway for pedestrians and cyclists

A shared-use path, mixed-use path or multi-use pathway is a path which is "designed to accommodate the movement of pedestrians and cyclists". Examples of shared-use paths include sidewalks designated as shared-use, bridleways and rail trails. A shared-use path typically has a surface that is asphalt, concrete or firmly packed crushed aggregate. Shared-use paths differ from cycle tracks and cycle paths in that shared-use paths are designed to include pedestrians even if the primary anticipated users are cyclists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glossary of road transport terms</span>

Terminology related to road transport—the transport of passengers or goods on paved routes between places—is diverse, with variation between dialects of English. There may also be regional differences within a single country, and some terms differ based on the side of the road traffic drives on. This glossary is an alphabetical listing of road transport terms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Safety of cycling infrastructure</span> Overview of bicycle safety concerns

There is debate over the safety implications of cycling infrastructure. Recent studies generally affirm that segregated cycle tracks have a better safety record between intersections than cycling on major roads in traffic. Furthermore, cycling infrastructure tends to lead to more people cycling. A higher modal share of people cycling is correlated with lower incidences of cyclist fatalities, leading to a "safety in numbers" effect though some contributors caution against this hypothesis. On the contrary, older studies tended to come to negative conclusions about mid-block cycle track safety.

References

  1. 1 2 "Definition of SIDEWALK". www.merriam-webster.com. Merriam-Webster . Retrieved 2020-10-25.
  2. 1 2 "Ontario Traffic Manual Book 1 - Introduction to the Ontario Traffic Manual" (PDF). otc.org. Ontario Traffic Council. p. 87. Retrieved 2024-09-20.
  3. 1 2 "British Columbia Manual of Standard Traffic Signs & Pavement Markings" (PDF). www.gov.bc.ca. Government of British Columbia. p. 243. Retrieved 2024-09-20.
  4. ↑ "pavement". www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com. Oxford University Press . Retrieved 2020-10-25.
  5. ↑ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 594. ISBN   9780415252256.
  6. ↑ "Parking on pavements". Lewisham Council. Archived from the original on 2010-10-04. Retrieved 2010-10-29. Why is pavement parking a problem? Pavements are constructed and provided for pedestrian use. Vehicles parked on pavements are: a hazard to pedestrians causing an obstruction which may result in them having to step off the pavement onto the highway thus putting themselves in danger...
  7. ↑ Cassidy, Frederic Gomes, and Joan Houston Hall (eds). (2002) Dictionary of American Regional English. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  8. ↑ Allan A. Metcalf (2000). How We Talk: American Regional English Today . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p.  90. ISBN   0-618-04362-4.
  9. ↑ "Highways Act 1980 – Interpretation Section 329". Archived from the original on 2011-02-06. "footway" means a way comprised in a highway which also comprises a carriageway, being a way over which the public have a right of way on foot only
  10. ↑ "Part II of II: Best Practices Design Guide - Sidewalk2 - Publications - Bicycle and Pedestrian Program - Environment - FHWA". Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) . Archived from the original on 2011-11-29.
  11. ↑ "Walkway". Compact Oxford English Dictionary. Archived from the original on July 19, 2012.
  12. ↑ "Inclusive mobility". Department for Transport. Archived from the original on 2010-11-22. Retrieved 2010-04-02. The distinction between a footway and a footpath is that a footway is the part of a highway adjacent to, or contiguous with, the roadway on which there is a public right of way on foot. A footpath is not adjacent to a public roadway. Where reference is made to one, it can generally be regarded as applying to the other for design purposes
  13. ↑ "Highways Act 1980 – Interpretation Section 329". Archived from the original on 2011-02-06. "cycle track" means a way constituting or comprised in a highway, being a way over which the public have the following, but no other, rights of way, that is to say, a right of way on pedal cycles [F3 (other than pedal cycles which are motor vehicles within the meaning of F4 the Road Traffic Act 1988 with or without a right of way on foot
  14. ↑ Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris, Renia Ehrenfeucht (2009). Sidewalks: Conflict and Negotiation Over Public Space. MIT Press. p. 15. ISBN   9780262123075 . Retrieved 18 November 2018. The first sidewalks appeared around 2000 to 1990 B.C. [...] in central Anatolia (modern Turkey) [...].
  15. ↑ Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris, Renia Ehrenfeucht (2009). Sidewalks: Conflict and Negotiation Over Public Space. MIT Press. p. 15. ISBN   9780262123075.
  16. ↑ "Georgian Colchester". British History. Archived from the original on 2011-12-28. Retrieved 2010-04-05. Bad paving and obstructions were frequently reported to the justices under a paving Act of 1623, but the borough chamberlain, workhouse corporation, and parish officers failed to discharge their responsibilities and the small fines for neglect were ineffective. Enforcement of the Act by the borough justices ceased when the charter lapsed in 1741 and by 1750 the streets were so ruinous that a new Act was obtained, which perpetuated the responsibility of justices to enforce the regulations.
  17. ↑ Linda Clarke (2002). Building Capitalism (Routledge Revivals): Historical Change and the Labour Process in the Production of Built Environment. Routledge. p. 115. ISBN   9781136599538.
  18. ↑ "city street scene manual" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-15. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
  19. ↑ "Research Note: An Assessment of Urban Form and Pedestrian and Transit Improvements as an Integrated GHG Reduction Strategy" (PDF). Washington State Department of Transportation. April 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-06-18.
  20. ↑ Gan, Albert; Joan Shen; Adriana Rodriquez (2005). Update of Florida Crash Reduction Factors and Countermeasures to Improve the Development of District Safety Improvement Projects (PDF) (Report). State of Florida DOT. BD015-04. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-04-10. Retrieved 2008-03-24.
  21. ↑ McMahon, Patrick J.; Charles V. Zegeer; Chandler Duncan; Richard L. Knoblauch; J. Richard Stewart; Asad J. Khattak (2002). An Analysis of Factors Contributing to 'Walking along Roadway' Crashes, Research Study and Guidelines for Sidewalks and Walkways (PDF) (Report). Federal Highway Administration. FHWA-RD-01-101. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-04-10. Retrieved 2008-03-24.
  22. ↑ John N. Ivan, Norman W. Garrick and Gilbert Hanson (November 2009). Designing Roads That Guide Drivers to Choose Safer Speeds. Connecticut Transportation Institute.
  23. ↑ "Do you take unnecessary risks behind the wheel?". Which?. 2011-01-05. Archived from the original on 2012-03-12. Retrieved 2011-01-27. The town of Drachten removed most of its street furniture, signs and markings in 2003 and recorded a dramatic fall in accidents and traffic congestion as a result
  24. ↑ Lisa Aultman-Hall and Michael F. Adams, Jr. (1998). "Sidewalk Bicycling Safety Issues". Transportation Research Record (1636).
  25. ↑ "Bicycle sidepaths: Crash risks and liability exposure: Evidence from the research literature". 8 December 2010. Archived from the original on 11 September 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-17.
  26. ↑ "Crimes of the Heart". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on August 10, 2013. Retrieved February 6, 2013.
  27. ↑ "The Link Between Kids Who Walk or Bike to School and Concentration". The Atlantic Cities. Archived from the original on February 7, 2013. Retrieved February 6, 2013.
  28. ↑ Iain Borden, Skateboarding and the City: a Complete History, (Bloomsbury, 2019), p. 9.
  29. ↑ Webster, George (2011-10-13). "Green sidewalk makes electricity one footstep at a time". CNN.
  30. ↑ Robert W. Lesley. "What Cement Users Owe To The Public". The Cement Age: A Magazine Devoted to the Uses of Cement. 2 (9): 652.
  31. ↑ Mario Theriault, Great Maritime Inventions – 1833–1950, Goose Lane Editions, 2001, p. 73
  32. ↑ "Expansion Joints Not Needed in Sidewalk - Concrete Construction". Archived from the original on 2014-05-21. Retrieved 2014-05-21.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.