Parking

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Cars parked at the side of the street Parked cars on street.jpg
Cars parked at the side of the street

Parking is the act of stopping and disengaging a vehicle and usually leaving it unoccupied. Parking on one or both sides of a road is often permitted, though sometimes with restrictions. Some buildings have parking facilities for use of the buildings' users. Countries and local governments have rules [1] for design and use of parking spaces.

Contents

Car parking is essential to car-based travel. Cars are typically stationary around 95 per cent of the time. [2] The availability and price of car parking may support car dependency. [3] Significant amounts of urban land are devoted to car parking; in many North American city centers, half or more of all land is devoted to car parking. [4]

Parking facilities

A parking garage in Gloucester, England Longsmith Street car park.JPG
A parking garage in Gloucester, England
Parking lot in New York City with capacity multiplied by stacking with lifts Where Did I Park %3F (10066313343).jpg
Parking lot in New York City with capacity multiplied by stacking with lifts
An underground parking garage at the University of Minnesota East River Road Garage.jpg
An underground parking garage at the University of Minnesota
A car elevator in a parking garage Car elevator (4454457711).jpg
A car elevator in a parking garage

Parking facilities can be divided into public parking and private parking. [5]

Such facilities may be on-street parking, located on the street, or off-street parking, located in a parking lot or parking garage.

On-street parking

Cars parked on the sidewalk in Moscow. Moscow, Kozitsky Lane.jpg
Cars parked on the sidewalk in Moscow.

On-street parking can come in the form of curbside or central parking.

Curbside parking may be parallel, angled or perpendicular parking. Parallel parking is often considered a complicated maneuver for drivers, however uses the least road width. [6]

On-street parking can act as inexpensive traffic calming by reducing the effective width of the street. [7]

On-street parking may be restricted for a number of reasons. Restrictions could include waiting prohibitions, which ban parking in certain areas; time restrictions; requirements to pay, e.g. at a Parking meter or using a pay by phone facility; or a permit zone, restricting parking to permit holders - often residents - only. Parking restrictions may be applied across a whole zone using a controlled parking zone or similar.

On-street parking is often criticised for being a bad use of high-value public space, especially where parking is free. In some cities, authorities have replaced parking spaces with Parklets. [8]

Parking lots and garages

Parking lots (or car parks) generally come in either a structured or surface regime.

Structured regimes are buildings in which vehicles can be parked, including multi-storey parking garages, underground parking or a hybrid of the two. Such structures may be incorporated into a wider structure.

In the U.S., after the first public parking garage for motor vehicles was opened in Boston, May 24, 1898, livery stables in urban centers began to be converted into garages. [9] In cities of the Eastern US, many former livery stables, with lifts for carriages, continue to operate as garages today.

Surface regimes involve using a clear lot to provide a single level of parking. This may be a stand-alone car park or located around a building.

There is a wide international vocabulary for multi-storey parking garages. In the Midwestern United States, they are known as parking ramp. In the United Kingdom, they are known as multi-storey car parks. In the Western US, they are called parking structures. In New Zealand, they are known as parking buildings. In Canada and South Africa, they are known as parkades.

Fringe parking

Fringe parking is an area for parking usually located outside the central business district and most often used by suburban residents who work or shop downtown.

Park and ride

A station car park in Hamburg allows people to park and take the train into the centre. ParkRide and BikeRide Station Hamburg-Poppenbuttel13.jpg
A station car park in Hamburg allows people to park and take the train into the centre.

Park and ride is a concept of parking whereby people drive or cycle to a car park away from their destination and use public transport or another form of transport, such as bicycle hire schemes, to complete their journey. This is done to reduce the amount of traffic congestion and the need for parking in city centres and to connect more people to public transport networks who may not be otherwise.

Bicycle parking

Parking lots specifically for bicycles are becoming more prevalent in many countries. These may include bicycle parking racks and locks, as well as more modern technologies for security and convenience. [10] For instance, one bicycle parking lot in Tokyo has an automated parking system. [11]

Certain parking lots or garages may contain parking facilities for other vehicles, such as bicycle parking. Underneath Utrecht Central station, there is a three-storey underground bicycle park which can store 12,656 bicycles. [12]

Types of parking

In addition to basic car parking, variations of serviced parking types exist. Common serviced parking types are:

Parking spaces within car parks may be variously arranged.

Economics

Free parking has hidden societal costs Free parking sign cropped.jpg
Free parking has hidden societal costs

Parking is one of the most important Intermediate goods in the modern market economy. Early economic analysis treated parking only as an end-of-trip cost. However, later work has recognised that parking is a major use of land in any urban area. [13] According to the International Parking Institute, "parking is a $25 billion industry and plays a pivotal role in transportation, building design, quality of life and environmental issues". [14] Annual parking revenue in the US alone is $10 billion. [15]

In urban areas, car parks compete with each other and curbside parking spaces. Drivers do not want to walk far from where they have parked, giving car parks local monopoly power. [13]

Urban parking spaces can have a high value where the price of land is high. The prices in Boston for parking spaces have always been high; in August 2020, the asking price ranged just under US$39,000 in the West End to almost $250,000 in the South End. [16] According to Parkopedia's 2019 Global Parking Index, the cost for 2 hours of parking in USD$ for the top 25 global cities is as follows: [17]

CountryCityPrice
United StatesNew York$34.94
AustraliaSydney$27.37
AustraliaBrisbane$20.55
United StatesChicago$20.08
AustraliaMelbourne$19.87
United StatesBoston$18.36
United KingdomLondon$16.92
United StatesWashington DC$15.56
United StatesPhiladelphia$14.77
JapanTokyo$12.09
United StatesDenver$11.87
NetherlandsAmsterdam$11.11
United StatesMiami$11.10
United StatesSan Francisco$10.99
United StatesSan Diego$10.80
United StatesBaltimore$10.45
FranceParis$10.10
United StatesNewark$10.10
New ZealandAuckland$9.77
CanadaCalgary$9.69
CanadaMontreal$9.66
United StatesLos Angeles$9.56
CanadaToronto$9.51
United StatesSeattle$9.34
NorwayOslo$9.25
The cost of motor vehicle parking plays a major role in transportation choices (US, 1999 dollars). The value above the line represents the out-of-pocket cost per trip for each mode of transportation, while the value below the line accounts for subsidies, environmental impact, social and indirect costs. Transportcostsdirect.jpg
The cost of motor vehicle parking plays a major role in transportation choices (US, 1999 dollars). The value above the line represents the out-of-pocket cost per trip for each mode of transportation, while the value below the line accounts for subsidies, environmental impact, social and indirect costs.

In the graph to the right or below the value above the line represents the out-of-pocket cost per trip, per person for each mode of transportation; the value below the line shows subsidies, environmental impact, social and indirect costs. When cities charge market rates for on-street parking and municipal parking garages for motor vehicles, and when bridges and tunnels are tolled for these modes, driving becomes less competitive in terms of out-of-pocket costs compared to other modes of transportation. When municipal motor vehicle parking is underpriced and roads are not tolled, the shortfall in tax expenditures by drivers, through fuel tax and other taxes might be regarded as a very large subsidy for automobile use: much greater than common subsidies for the maintenance of infrastructure and discounted fares for public transportation. [18]

Parking price elasticity

The average response in parking demand to a change in price (parking price elasticity) is -0.52 for commuting and -0.62 for non-commuting trips. Non-commuters also respond to parking fees by changing their parking duration if the price is per hour. [19]

Performance parking

Donald C. Shoup in 2005 argued in his book, The High Cost of Free Parking , against the large-scale use of land and other resources in urban and suburban areas for motor vehicle parking. [4] Shoup's work has been popularized along with market-rate parking and performance parking, both of which raise and lower the price of metered street parking with the goal of reducing cruising for parking and double parking without overcharging for parking.

Electronic Parking System exit gate EPS - VivoCity.JPG
Electronic Parking System exit gate

"Performance parking" or variable-rate parking is based on Shoup's ideas. Electronic parking meters are used so that parking spaces in desirable locations and at desirable times are more expensive than less desirable locations. Other variations include rising rates based on duration of parking. More modern ideas use sensors and networked parking meters that "bid up" (or down) the price of parking automatically with the goal of keeping 85–90% of the spaces in use at any given time to ensure perpetual parking availability. These ideas have been implemented in Redwood City, California [20] and are being implemented in San Francisco [21] and Los Angeles. [22]

One empirical study supports performance-based pricing by analyzing the block-level price elasticity of parking demand in the SFpark context. [23] The study suggests that block-level elasticities vary so widely that urban planners and economists cannot accurately predict the response in parking demand to a given change in price. The public policy implication is that planners should utilize observed occupancy rates in order to adjust prices so that target occupancy rates are achieved. Effective implementation will require further experimentation with and assessment of the tâtonnement process.

Geography

The management of parking as a land use is an aspect of urban planning.

Municipal parking regulation introduced controls for parking on public land, often funded through parking meters. However, with the growth of car use, the supply of on-street parking became insufficient to meet demand. City centre merchants called on municipalities to subsidise car parking in the city centre to facilitate competition against new forms of car-centric commercial development. [24]

Parking is a heavy land use. The total land area of parking in the US is at least the size of Massachusetts.

Off-street parking can be a temporary usage for a land owner to extract value from a vacant lot. [24]

Parking restrictions

A parking space reserved for milk trucks at a Montebello cheese production facility. The French wording says "Camion a lait", which means "Milk truck"). Milk truck reserved parking at a Montebello cheese production facility. The French wording says "Camion a lait", which means "Milk truck").jpg
A parking space reserved for milk trucks at a Montebello cheese production facility. The French wording says "Camion à lait", which means "Milk truck").

During the winter of 2005 in Boston, the practice of some people saving convenient roadway for themselves became controversial. At that time, many Boston districts had an informal convention that if a person shoveled the snow out of a roadspace, that person could claim ownership of that space with a marker. [25] However, city government defied that custom and cleared markers out of spaces. [26]

Parking minimums and maximums

In congested urban areas parking of motor vehicles is time-consuming and often expensive. Urban planners who are in a position to override market forces must consider whether and how to accommodate or "demand manage" potentially large numbers of motor vehicles in small geographic areas. Usually, the authorities set minimum, or more rarely maximum, numbers of motor vehicle parking spaces for new housing and commercial developments, and may also plan their location and distribution to influence their convenience and accessibility. The costs or subsidies of such parking accommodations can become a heated point in local politics. For example, in 2006 the San Francisco Board of Supervisors considered a controversial zoning plan to limit the number of motor vehicle parking spaces available in new residential developments. [27]

Tradeable parking allowances have been proposed [28] for dense residential areas to reduce inequity and increase urban livability. In summary, each resident would receive an annual, fractional allowance for on-street parking. To park on the street, one must assemble a whole parking allowance by purchasing fractional allowances from others who do not own cars.

Parking by country

Germany

German municipalities have variegated transport cultures and policies, however common federal laws govern the use of street space and the rights of motorists. German law privileges parked cars as traffic and constrains the ability of municipal governments to implement diverse parking policies.

German legal principles determine that the use of public streets is for traffic, including car parking. Consequently, German motorists tend to assert a right to park for free on the public highway. [29]

Japan

In Japan, since 1962, to buy a car, one is required to obtain a "garage certificate" (shako shomeisho) from their local prefecture's police, providing proof of their own off-street parking space that they either buy or rent, that is not located more than 2 kilometers from their place of residence. Kei cars can be exempted from parking space requirement in some sparsely-populated areas. Overnight street parking is not allowed. [30] [31] [32]

United Kingdom

United States

In some jurisdictions, those in possession of the proper ID tags or license plates are also free from parking violation tickets for running over their metered time or parking in an inappropriate place, as some disabilities may prohibit the use of regular spaces. Illegally parking in a disabled parking space or fraudulent use of another person's permit is heavily fined.

South Korea

Shortage of parking lots

In South Korea, there are many more vehicles than there are parking lots in the country, so parking lots are sometimes created as a way to utilize empty spaces where people are playing. [33]

Discount system

There are not many compact cars in Korea, so the government is providing a lot of support for them, and the parking lot discount system for them is an example of that.

  • Full discounts on eco-friendly cars are also active.
  • Electric & Hydrogen & Hybrid vehicles: 50% Off
  • Compact cars: 50% to 60% off

As the number of users of large supermarket chain increased in Korea, the utilization rate of the traditional market sharply decreased. Accordingly, each local government has a large-scale parking lots near the traditional market and provides discounts to users.

  • Traditional market users: 1 hour exemption & 50% off additional 1 hour afterwards

The low birth rate problem in Korea is serious, and there is a lot of support for them.

  • Multi-child households: 50% off
  • Disabled person: 1 hour exemption / 50% off additional 1 hour afterwards
  • Persons of national merit and persons eligible for veterans benefits: 1 hour exemption / 50% discount for additional 1 hour afterwards

Parking at various destinations

Hospitals

In England, NHS hospitals are permitted to charge patients, staff and visitors for parking at the hospital. This has been criticised for adding extra costs to accessing healthcare. In Scotland and Wales, all hospital parking charges have been abolished.

Airports

Long-stay parking at Edinburgh Airport EdinburghAirportCarPark2017.jpg
Long-stay parking at Edinburgh Airport

Most airports provide parking for patrons. Parking is normally split into short-stay parking, intended for those dropping off or picking up passengers, and long-stay parking, intended for staff and passengers who choose to drive to the airport. At larger airports, long-stay parking may be located further away from the terminal, while parking at the terminal will be more expensive. Some airports charge more for parking cars than for parking aircraft. [34] Airports may be reluctant to discourage passengers from arriving at the airport by car due to the revenues generated. [35]

At UK airports, it is rare for employees to pay for their car parking. Generally, the airports authority will charge for staff permits, but these permits will be purchased by employers and the cost not passed on to staff. Staff are generally more willing to park at a site away from the airport than passengers too. [35]

Statistics

Parking Generation is a document produced by the Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) that assembles a vast array of parking demand observations predominately from the United States. It summarizes the amount of parking observed with various land uses at different times of the day/week/month/year including the peak parking demand. While it has been assailed by some planners for lack of data in urban settings, it stands as the single largest accumulation of actual parking demand data related to land use. Anyone can submit parking demand data for inclusion. The report is updated approximately every 5 to 10 years.

Finding parking

A sign indicating that no parking is allowed on a lane Private - No Parking - Lane In Use.jpg
A sign indicating that no parking is allowed on a lane

When the supply of kerbside parking in a particular area is less than the demand for parking, a phenomenon known as cruising occurs, where drivers drive on streets in search of a parking space. It can also occur where there is supply of kerbside space, but parking restriction or payment costs discourage drivers from parking there. [36]

Cruising is an economic decision, with the cost of parking dominant in determining cruising behaviour. This is grounded in the principle that drivers will only cruise if the cost of cruising is lower than the savings of not parking in available chargeable spaces. [36] Drivers are more likely to cruise if on-street parking is cheaper than off-street parking, the costs of fuel are cheap, the driver wishes to park for longer, the driver is alone in the car and the driver's time is not valuable to them. [37] Cruising can be diminished if the cost of on-street parking is set equal to the cost of off-street parking. [36]

Automated Parking Guidance systems present drivers with dynamic information on parking within controlled areas (like parking garages and parking lots). The systems combine traffic monitoring, communication, processing and variable message sign technologies to provide the service.

Mobile apps and parking booking platforms that help drivers find parking take different approaches have emerged. [38]

Some connected cars have mobile apps associated with the in-car system, that can locate the car or indicate the last place it was parked. Cars with Internavi communicate to each other indicating recently vacated spots.

San Francisco uses a system called SFpark, which has sensors embedded in the roadway. It allows drivers to find parking via mobile app, website, or SMS, and includes "smart" parking meters and garages that use variable pricing based on time and location to keep approximately 15% of parking spaces open. Some South Boston spots also have sensors, so users of an app called Parker can find vacancies. [39]

Ford Motor Company is developing a system called Parking Spotter, which allows vehicles to upload parking spot information into the cloud for other drivers to access. [40]

Parking guidance and information system provides information about the availability of parking spaces within a controlled area. The systems may include vehicle detection sensors that can count the number of available spaces and display the information on various signs. There may be indicator lights that can lead drivers to an exact available spot.[ citation needed ]

An amusing alliterative slang term for finding an ideal parking spot directly in front of ones destination is Doris Day parking named for the American singer and actor who in numerous romantic comedy films was shown to immediately drive into the perfect spot time after time. [41] [42]

Statistically, the optimal strategy is to drive past the first empty spot and park in the next available spot. [43] [44]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transportation in Boston</span> Overview of transportation in Boston, Massachusetts, United States

Transportation in Boston includes roadway, subway, regional rail, air, and sea options for passenger and freight transit in Boston, Massachusetts. The Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport) operates the Port of Boston, which includes a container shipping facility in South Boston, and Logan International Airport, in East Boston. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) operates bus, subway, short-distance rail, and water ferry passenger services throughout the city and region. Amtrak operates passenger rail service to and from major Northeastern cities, and a major bus terminal at South Station is served by varied intercity bus companies. The city is bisected by major highways I-90 and I-93, the intersection of which has undergone a major renovation, nicknamed the Big Dig.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Street</span> Public thoroughfare in a built environment

A street is a public thoroughfare in a built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as tarmac, concrete, cobblestone or brick. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Congestion pricing</span> System of surcharging users of public goods that are subject to congestion

Congestion pricing or congestion charges is a system of surcharging users of public goods that are subject to congestion through excess demand, such as through higher peak charges for use of bus services, electricity, metros, railways, telephones, and road pricing to reduce traffic congestion; airlines and shipping companies may be charged higher fees for slots at airports and through canals at busy times. Advocates claim this pricing strategy regulates demand, making it possible to manage congestion without increasing supply.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Traffic congestion</span> Transport condition characterized by slower speed and high density

Traffic congestion is a condition in transport that is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. Traffic congestion on urban road networks has increased substantially since the 1950s. When traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the traffic stream, this results in congestion. While congestion is a possibility for any mode of transportation, this article will focus on automobile congestion on public roads.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Societal impacts of cars</span> Overview of the effects of cars on various societies

Since the start of the twentieth century, the role of cars has become highly important, though controversial. They are used throughout the world and have become the most popular mode of transport in many of the more developed countries. In developing countries cars are fewer and the effects of the car on society are less visible, however they are nonetheless significant. The spread of cars built upon earlier changes in transport brought by railways and bicycles. They introduced sweeping changes in employment patterns, social interactions, infrastructure and the distribution of goods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Private transport</span> Private vehicles or commercial fleets optionally carrying passengers or freight

Private transport is the personal or individual use of transportation which are not available for use by the general public, where in theory the user can decide freely on the time and route of transit, using vehicles such as: private car, company car, bicycle, dicycle, self-balancing scooter, motorcycle, scooter, aircraft, boat, snowmobile, carriage, horse, etc., or recreational equipment such as roller skates, inline skates, sailboat, sailplane, skateboard etc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parking lot</span> Cleared area for parking vehicles

A parking lot or car park, also known as a car lot, is a cleared area intended for parking vehicles. The term usually refers to an area dedicated only for parking, with a durable or semi-durable surface. In most jurisdictions where cars are the dominant mode of transportation, parking lots are a major feature of cities and suburban areas. Shopping malls, sports stadiums, and other similar venues often have immense parking lots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Car-free movement</span> Movement to reduce the use of private vehicles

The car-free movement is a social movement centering the belief that large and/or high-speed motorized vehicles are too dominant in modern life, particularly in urban areas such as cities and suburbs. It is a broad, informal, emergent network of individuals and organizations, including social activists, urban planners, transportation engineers, environmentalists and others. The goal of the movement is to establish places where motorized vehicle use is greatly reduced or eliminated, by converting road and parking space to other public uses and rebuilding compact urban environments where most destinations are within easy reach by other means, including walking, cycling, public transport, personal transporters, and mobility as a service.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Valet parking</span> Type of parking service

Valet parking is a parking service offered by some restaurants, stores, and other businesses. In contrast to "self-parking", where customers find a parking space on their own, customers' vehicles are parked for them by a person called a valet. This service either requires a fee to be paid by the customer or is offered free of charge by the establishment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parking space</span> Designated location for parking a vehicle

A parking space, parking place or parking spot is a location that is designated for parking, either paved or unpaved. It can be in a parking garage, in a parking lot or on a city street. The space may be delineated by road surface markings. The automobile fits inside the space, either by parallel parking, perpendicular parking or angled parking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multistorey car park</span> Building designed for car parking

A multistorey car park or parking garage, also called a multistorey, parking building, parking structure, parkade, parking ramp, parking deck, or indoor parking, is a building designed for car, motorcycle, and bicycle parking in which parking takes place on more than one floor or level. The first known multistorey facility was built in London in 1901, and the first underground parking was built in Barcelona in 1904. The term multistorey is almost never used in the US, because almost all parking structures have multiple parking levels. Parking structures may be heated if they are enclosed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intermodal passenger transport</span> Places for travelers to transfer from one category of vehicle to another

Intermodal passenger transport, also called mixed-mode commuting, involves using two or more modes of transportation in a journey. Mixed-mode commuting is often used to combine the strengths of various transportation options. A major goal of modern intermodal passenger transport is to reduce dependence on the automobile as the major mode of ground transportation and increase use of public transport. To assist the traveller, various intermodal journey planners such as Rome2rio and Google Transit have been devised to help travellers plan and schedule their journey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Driving in Singapore</span> Overview of driving in Singapore

In Singapore, cars and other vehicles drive on the left side of the road, as in neighbouring Malaysia, due to its British colonial history. As a result, most vehicles are right-hand drive. However, exemptions have been made to allow foreign vehicles and construction machineries to utilise the road space of Singapore. As such, vehicles with left hand drive configurations are required to either be driven with a sign indicating "LEFT-HAND-DRIVE" or towed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Car dependency</span> Concept that city layouts favor automobiles over other modes of transportation

Car dependency is a phenomenon in urban planning wherein existing and planned infrastructure prioritizes the use of automobiles over other modes of transportation, such as public transit, bicycles, and walking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Donald Shoup</span> Professor of urban planning

Donald Curran Shoup is an American engineer and professor in urban planning. He is a research professor of urban planning at University of California, Los Angeles and a noted Georgist economist. His 2005 book The High Cost of Free Parking identifies the negative repercussions of off-street parking requirements and relies heavily on 'Georgist' insights about optimal land use and rent distribution. In 2015, the American Planning Association awarded Shoup the "National Planning Excellence Award for a Planning Pioneer."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycling infrastructure</span> Facilities for use by cyclists

Cycling infrastructure is all infrastructure cyclists are allowed to use. Bikeways include bike paths, bike lanes, cycle tracks, rail trails and, where permitted, sidewalks. Roads used by motorists are also cycling infrastructure, except where cyclists are barred such as many freeways/motorways. It includes amenities such as bike racks for parking, shelters, service centers and specialized traffic signs and signals. The more cycling infrastructure, the more people get about by bicycle.

SFpark is San Francisco's system for managing the availability of both on- and off-street parking. Taking effect in April 2011, the program utilizes smart parking meters that change their prices according to location, time of day, and day of the week, with the goal of keeping about 15% of spaces vacant on any given block. The San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency launched the system with congestion mitigation funding from the Federal Highway Administration in July 2010 as a fallback from a downtown cordon. It is one of several such systems in the world. The City of Calgary, Canada and the Calgary Parking Authority with their ParkPlus system have been using a similar demand based pricing model since 2008.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Automated parking system</span> Robotic system that parks cars

An automated (car) parking system (APS) is a mechanical system designed to minimize the area and/or volume required for parking cars. Like a multi-story parking garage, an APS provides parking for cars on multiple levels stacked vertically to maximize the number of parking spaces while minimizing land usage. The APS, however, utilizes a mechanical system to transport cars to and from parking spaces in order to eliminate much of the space wasted in a multi-story parking garage. While a multi-story parking garage is similar to multiple parking lots stacked vertically, an APS is more similar to an automated storage and retrieval system for cars. Parking systems are generally powered by electric motors or hydraulic pumps that move vehicles into a storage position.The paternoster is an example of one of the earliest and most common types of APS.

<i>The High Cost of Free Parking</i> Book by Donald Shoup

The High Cost of Free Parking is an urban planning book by UCLA professor Donald Shoup dealing with the costs of free parking on society. It is structured as a criticism of the planning and regulation of parking and recommends that parking be built and allocated according to its fair market value. It incorporates elements of Shoup's Georgist philosophy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parking mandates</span> Guidelines for municipal parking

Parking mandates or parking requirements are policy decisions, usually taken by municipal governments, which require new developments to provide a particular number of parking spaces.

References

  1. ↑ Roads in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (ca. 700 BC) bore signs stating "Royal Road. Let no man lessen it." The penalty for illegal use was "death by impalement on a stake." Lay, M. G. (1992). Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles That Used Them. United States: Rutgers University Press. p. 184.
  2. ↑ Paul, Barter (2013-02-22). ""Cars are parked 95% of the time". Let's check!". Reinventing parking. Retrieved 2021-11-09.
  3. ↑ Hagman, Olle (2006-03-01). "Morning Queues and Parking Problems. On the Broken Promises of the Automobile". Mobilities. 1 (1): 63–74. doi:10.1080/17450100500489247. ISSN   1745-0101. S2CID   111368651.
  4. 1 2 The High Cost of Free Parking by Donald C. Shoup
  5. ↑ "How parking is managed". www.britishparking.co.uk. Retrieved 2021-10-24.
  6. ↑ "Parallel Parking | AA". www.theaa.com. Retrieved 2021-10-24.
  7. ↑ Untermann, Richard (1997). "Street Wise: Traffic Calming Basics". Planning Commissioners Journal. 26: 12–14.
  8. ↑ "Op-Ed: Why 'Parklets' for Recreational Use Should Replace Some Parking Spaces". NJ Spotlight News. 2020-07-21. Retrieved 2021-10-24.
  9. ↑ Shannon Sanders McDonald: The parking garage. Design and evolution of a modern urban form, Washington 2007, p. 7-21
  10. ↑ "The Guide to Parking Lots". Discount Park & Ride. 9 January 2015. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
  11. ↑ "Invisible Bicycles: Tokyo's High-Tech Underground Bike Parking". Web Urbanist. 26 March 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
  12. ↑ "World's biggest bicycle park built below Utrecht train station". Dezeen. 2019-09-12. Retrieved 2021-10-24.
  13. 1 2 Inci, Eren (2015-03-01). "A review of the economics of parking". Economics of Transportation. Special Issue on Collective Contributions in the Honor of Richard Arnott. 4 (1): 50–63. doi:10.1016/j.ecotra.2014.11.001. ISSN   2212-0122.
  14. ↑ "IPI". International Parking Institute.
  15. ↑ van Rooij, Rogier (17 November 2017). "Why New Parking Facilities Should Be Recyclable". Cleantechnica. Retrieved 17 November 2017.
  16. ↑ "How much does it cost to buy a parking space in Boston?". Constantine Valhouli. Retrieved 2021-09-13.
  17. ↑ "Global Parking Index 2019". Parkopedia. Retrieved 2021-01-21.
  18. 1 2 Graph based on data from Vukan R. Vuchic, Transportation for Livable Cities, p. 76. 1999. ISBN   0-88285-161-6
  19. ↑ Lehner, S.; Peer, S. (2019), The price elasticity of parking: A meta-analysis, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Volume 121, March 2019, Pages 177-191" web|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2019.01.014
  20. ↑ "Redwood City Redevelopment | Downtown Parking". Ci.redwood-city.ca.us. Archived from the original on 2010-04-23. Retrieved 2013-01-12.
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  22. ↑ "LADOT ParkingInfo". Expresspark.lacity.org. Retrieved 2013-01-12.
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  24. 1 2 Mapes, Jennifer (2006). "Review of LOTS OF PARKING: Land Use in a Car Culture". Material Culture. 38 (2): 100–102. ISSN   0883-3680. JSTOR   29764358.
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  28. ↑ Barrrett, Kirk (2018). "Feasibility of tradeable on-street parking allowances in dense residential areas to reduce inequity and increase urban livability" . Retrieved 6 February 2020.
  29. ↑ Taylor, Dr Elizabeth (2021-02-01). "Free parking for free people: German road laws and rights as constraints on local car parking management". Transport Policy. 101: 23–33. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2020.11.013. ISSN   0967-070X. S2CID   229435303.
  30. ↑ Barter, Paul (2014-06-04). "Japan's proof-of-parking rule has an essential twin policy" . Retrieved 2024-06-19.
  31. ↑ "JDM 4 all | Getting garage certificate". JDM 4 all. Retrieved 2024-06-19.
  32. ↑ "Japan's Proof-of-Parking rule (shako shomeisho)". Parking Reform Atlas. Retrieved 2024-06-19.
  33. ↑ Korea Tip of the Day: Know your colors of parking spots - Stripes Korea
  34. ↑ "Letters: Cheaper to park a plane than a car at airport". The Age. Melbourne. 2012-04-21. Archived from the original on 2014-01-01. Retrieved 2012-04-21.
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  36. 1 2 3 Lee, Jinwoo (Brian); Agdas, Duzgun; Baker, Douglas (2017-10-25). "Cruising for parking: New empirical evidence and influential factors on cruising time". Journal of Transport and Land Use. 10 (1). doi: 10.5198/jtlu.2017.1142 . hdl: 11299/191066 . ISSN   1938-7849.
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  40. ↑ Autoblog Staff (14 April 2015). "Translogic 174: Ford envisions the future of parking". Autoblog. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  41. ↑ Bill, Tony, 1940- (2008). Movie speak : how to talk like you belong on a film set : and get invited to the four-banger. New York: Workman Pub. ISBN   9780761156307. OCLC   759839493.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  42. ↑ "Los Angeles Wants Its 'Doris Day' Parking". Los Angeles Times. 2002-03-30. ISSN   0458-3035 . Retrieved 2019-06-18.
  43. ↑ "Where to park your car, according to math". Phys.org . 20 September 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
  44. ↑ Krapivsky, P.L.; Redner, S (19 September 2019). "Simple parking strategies". Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment. 2019 (9): 093404. arXiv: 1904.06612 . Bibcode:2019JSMTE..09.3404K. doi:10.1088/1742-5468/ab3a2a. S2CID   118597754.

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