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Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution, patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in a defined population.
Breast cancer is cancer that develops from breast tissue. Signs of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, milk rejection, fluid coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a red or scaly patch of skin. In those with distant spread of the disease, there may be bone pain, swollen lymph nodes, shortness of breath, or yellow skin.
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements. While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they can also have other causes. Over 100 types of cancers affect humans.
A cohort study is a particular form of longitudinal study that samples a cohort, performing a cross-section at intervals through time. It is a type of panel study where the individuals in the panel share a common characteristic.
Malignancy is the tendency of a medical condition to become progressively worse.
A case–control study is a type of observational study in which two existing groups differing in outcome are identified and compared on the basis of some supposed causal attribute. Case–control studies are often used to identify factors that may contribute to a medical condition by comparing subjects who have that condition/disease with patients who do not have the condition/disease but are otherwise similar. They require fewer resources but provide less evidence for causal inference than a randomized controlled trial. A case–control study is often used to produce an odds ratio, which is an inferior measure of strength of association compared to relative risk, but new statistical methods make it possible to use a case-control study to estimate relative risk, risk differences, and other quantities.
The Women's Health Initiative (WHI) was a series of clinical studies initiated by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 1991, to address major health issues causing morbidity and mortality in postmenopausal women. It consisted of three clinical trials (CT) and an observational study (OS). In particular, randomized controlled trials were designed and funded that addressed cardiovascular disease, cancer, and osteoporosis.
The abortion–breast cancer hypothesis posits that having an induced abortion can increase the risk of getting breast cancerThis hypothesis is at odds with mainstream scientific opinion and is rejected by major medical professional organizations; despite this, it continues to be widely propagated as pseudoscience, typically in service of an anti-abortion agenda.
Invasive carcinoma of no special type (NST) is also referred to as invasive ductal carcinoma or infiltrating ductal carcinoma(IDC) and invasive ductal carcinoma, not otherwise specified (NOS). Each of these terms represents to the same disease entity, but for international audiences this article will use invasive carcinoma NST because it is the preferred term of the World Health Organization (WHO).
Alcohol causes cancers of the oesophagus, liver, breast, colon, oral cavity, rectum, pharynx and laryngeal cancers, and probably causes cancers of the pancreas. Consumption of alcohol in any quantity can cause cancer. The more alcohol is consumed, the higher the cancer risk, and no amount can be considered safe. Alcoholic beverages were classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in 1988.
Clinical study design is the formulation of trials and experiments, as well as observational studies in medical, clinical and other types of research involving human beings. The goal of a clinical study is to assess the safety, efficacy, and / or the mechanism of action of an investigational medicinal product (IMP) or procedure, or new drug or device that is in development, but potentially not yet approved by a health authority. It can also be to investigate a drug, device or procedure that has already been approved but is still in need of further investigation, typically with respect to long-term effects or cost-effectiveness.
A nested case–control (NCC) study is a variation of a case–control study in which cases and controls are drawn from the population in a fully enumerated cohort.
In fields such as epidemiology, social sciences, psychology and statistics, an observational study draws inferences from a sample to a population where the independent variable is not under the control of the researcher because of ethical concerns or logistical constraints. One common observational study is about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator. This is in contrast with experiments, such as randomized controlled trials, where each subject is randomly assigned to a treated group or a control group. Observational studies, for lacking an assignment mechanism, naturally present difficulties for inferential analysis.
Dietary factors are recognized as having a significant effect on the risk of cancers, with different dietary elements both increasing and reducing risk. Diet and obesity may be related to up to 30–35% of cancer deaths, while physical inactivity appears to be related to 7% risk of cancer occurrence. One review in 2011 suggested that total caloric intake influences cancer incidence and possibly progression.
Risk factors for breast cancer may be divided into preventable and non-preventable. Their study belongs in the field of epidemiology. Breast cancer, like other forms of cancer, can result from multiple environmental and hereditary risk factors. The term "environmental", as used by cancer researchers, means any risk factor that is not genetically inherited.
A retrospective cohort study, also called a historic cohort study, is a longitudinal cohort study used in medical and psychological research. A cohort of individuals that share a common exposure factor is compared with another group of equivalent individuals not exposed to that factor, to determine the factor's influence on the incidence of a condition such as disease or death. Retrospective cohort studies have existed for approximately as long as prospective cohort studies.
The rare disease assumption is a mathematical assumption in epidemiologic case-control studies where the hypothesis tests the association between an exposure and a disease. It is assumed that, if the prevalence of the disease is low, then the odds ratio (OR) approaches the relative risk (RR). The idea was first demonsterated by Jerome Cornfield.
Obesity is a risk factor for many chronic physical and mental illnesses.
The epidemiology of cancer is the study of the factors affecting cancer, as a way to infer possible trends and causes. The study of cancer epidemiology uses epidemiological methods to find the cause of cancer and to identify and develop improved treatments.
Worldwide, breast cancer is the most common invasive cancer in women. Breast cancer comprises 22.9% of invasive cancers in women and 16% of all female cancers.
References
- ↑ Last, John M, ed. (30 November 2000). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. Oxford University Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-19-977434-0 . Retrieved 28 March 2013.
- ↑ Moren, Alain; Valenciano, Marta (Kitching, Aileen, ed.). "Information (measurement) bias". Field Epidemiology Manual. FEM Wiki. Archived from the original on 2019-08-18. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Kopec, JA; Esdaile, JM (September 1990). "Bias in case-control studies. A review". Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 44 (3): 179–86. doi:10.1136/jech.44.3.179. PMC 1060638 . PMID 2273353.
- ↑ Prince, Martin (2012-01-01), Wright, Pádraig; Stern, Julian; Phelan, Michael (eds.), "9 - Epidemiology", Core Psychiatry (Third Edition), Oxford: W.B. Saunders, pp. 115–129, doi:10.1016/b978-0-7020-3397-1.00009-4, ISBN 978-0-7020-3397-1 , retrieved 2020-10-21
- ↑ Hoang, Van Dong; Tran, Van Dinh; Lee, Andy H. (2015-01-01), Preedy, Victor R. (ed.), "Chapter 39 - Coffee Consumption and Prostate Cancer", Coffee in Health and Disease Prevention, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 359–366, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-409517-5.00039-5, ISBN 978-0-12-409517-5 , retrieved 2020-10-21
- ↑ Schulz, KF; Grimes, DA (February 2, 2002). "Case-control studies: research in reverse" (PDF). Lancet. 359 (9304): 431–4. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07605-5. PMID 11844534. S2CID 10770936. Archived from the original on June 15, 2016.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ↑ Mukhopadhyay, Sanjay; Feldman, Michael; Abels, Esther (2017). "Whole slide imaging versus microscopy for primary diagnosis in surgical pathology: a multicenter randomized blinded noninferiority study of 1992 cases (pivotal study)". American Journal of Surgical Pathology. 42 (1): 39–52. doi:10.1097/PAS.0000000000000948. PMC 5737464 . PMID 28961557.
- ↑ Lee, William; Hotopf, Matthew (2012-01-01), Wright, Pádraig; Stern, Julian; Phelan, Michael (eds.), "10 - Critical appraisal: Reviewing scientific evidence and reading academic papers", Core Psychiatry (Third Edition), Oxford: W.B. Saunders, pp. 131–142, doi:10.1016/b978-0-7020-3397-1.00010-0, ISBN 978-0-7020-3397-1 , retrieved 2020-10-21
- 1 2 Torelli, Paola; Jensen, Rigmor (2010-01-01), Aminoff, Michael J.; Boller, François; Swaab, Dick F. (eds.), "Chapter 10 - Headache diaries and calendars", Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Headache, Elsevier, vol. 97, pp. 137–146, doi:10.1016/s0072-9752(10)97010-3, ISBN 9780444521392 , retrieved 2020-10-21