Capitalization

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The capital letter "A" in the Latin alphabet, followed by its lowercase equivalent, in sans serif and serif typefaces respectively Latin alphabet Aa.svg
The capital letter "A" in the Latin alphabet, followed by its lowercase equivalent, in sans serif and serif typefaces respectively

Capitalization (American spelling; also British spelling in Oxford) or capitalisation (Commonwealth English; all other meanings) is writing a word with its first letter as a capital letter (uppercase letter) and the remaining letters in lower case, in writing systems with a case distinction. The term also may refer to the choice of the casing applied to text.

Contents

Conventional writing systems (orthographies) for different languages have different conventions for capitalization, for example, the capitalization of titles. Conventions also vary, to a lesser extent, between different style guides. In addition to the Latin script, capitalization also affects the Armenian, Cyrillic, Georgian and Greek alphabets.

The full rules of capitalization in English are complicated. The rules have also changed over time, generally to capitalize fewer words. The conventions used in an 18th-century document will be unfamiliar to a modern reader; for instance, many common nouns were capitalized.

The systematic use of capitalized and uncapitalized words in running text is called "mixed case".

Parts of speech

Owing to the essentially arbitrary nature of orthographic classification and the existence of variant authorities and local house styles, questionable capitalization of words is not uncommon, even in respected newspapers and magazines. Most publishers require consistency, at least within the same document, in applying a specified standard: this is described as "house style".

Pronouns

2nd-person pronouns

Many languages distinguish between formal and informal 2nd-person pronouns.

  • In German, the formal 2nd-person plural pronoun Sie is capitalized along with all its case-forms (Ihre, Ihres, etc.), but these words are not capitalized when used as 3rd-person feminine singular or plural pronouns. Until the recent German spelling reform(s), the traditional rules (which are still widely adhered to, although not taught in schools) also capitalized the informal 2nd-person singular pronoun Du (and its derivatives, such as Dein) when used in letters or similar texts, but this is no longer required.
  • Italian also capitalizes its formal pronouns, Lei and Loro, and their cases (even within words, e.g. arrivederLa "goodbye", formal). This is occasionally also done for the Dutch U, though this is formally only required when referring to a deity and may be considered archaic.
  • In Spanish, the abbreviations of the pronouns usted and ustedes, Ud., Uds., Vd., and Vds., are usually written with a capital.
  • In Finnish and Estonian, the second-person plural pronoun can be used when formally addressing a single person, and in writing the pronoun is sometimes capitalized as Te to indicate special regard. In a more familiar tone, one can also capitalize the second-person singular pronoun Sinä (Sina in Estonian). [1]
  • Similarly, in Russian the formal second-person pronoun Вы, and its oblique cases Вас, Вам etc., are capitalized (usually in personal correspondence); also in Bulgarian.
  • Slovenian, Croatian, Serbian capitalize the formal second-person pronoun Vi along with its oblique cases (Vas, Vam, Vami) and personal pronoun (Vaš etc.) in formal correspondence. Historically, the familiar second-person pronoun ti and its cases (tebe, tebi, teboj) were capitalized as well, but new orthography prohibits such use.
  • In Danish, the plural second-person pronoun, I, is capitalized, but its other forms jer and jeres are not. This distinguishes it from the preposition i ("in"). The formal second-person pronoun is also capitalized in all its forms (De, Dem, Deres), distinguishing it from the otherwise identical third-person plural pronouns.
  • In Norwegian, both second-person singular and plural have a capitalized alternative form (De, Dem, Deres in Bokmål; De, Dykk, Dykkar in Nynorsk) to express formality for both subject and object of a sentence, but is very rarely used in modern speech and writing.
  • In formally written Polish, Czech, Slovak and Latvian, most notably in letters and e-mails, all pronouns referring to the addressee are capitalized. This includes Ty ("thou") and all its related forms such as Twój and Ciebie. This principle extends to nouns used formally to address the addressee of a letter, such as Pan ("sir") and Pani ("madam").
  • In Indonesian, capitalizing the formal second-person pronoun Anda along with all references to the addressee, such as "(kepada) Bapak/Ibu" ((to) Sir/Madam), is required in practice of Ejaan Yang Disempurnakan (Perfected Orthography). [2] However, some people do not know of or choose not to adhere to this spelling rule. In contrast, Malay orthography used in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei does not require the capitalization of anda.
  • In Tagalog and its standard form, Filipino, the formal second-person pronouns Kayo and Ninyo and their oblique form Inyo are customarily and reverentially capitalized as such, particularly in most digital and printed media related to religion and its references. Purists who consider this rule as nonstandard and inconsistent do not apply it when writing.
  • In Tajik, capitalization is used to distinguish the second-person formal pronoun Шумо from the second-person plural pronoun шумо.
  • In Swedish, since du-reformen , the second-person singular pronoun du may be capitalized as Du when addressed formally.

Nouns

Adjectives

Places and geographic terms

The capitalization of geographic terms in English text generally depends on whether the author perceives the term as a proper noun, in which case it is capitalized, or as a combination of an established proper noun with a normal adjective or noun, in which case the latter are not capitalized. There are no universally agreed lists of English geographic terms which are considered as proper nouns. The following are examples of rules that some[ which? ] British and U.S. publishers have established in style guides for their authors:

Upper case: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, Central America, North Korea, South Africa, the European Union, the Republic of Poland, the North Atlantic, the Middle East, the Arctic, The Gambia, The Bahamas, The Hague

Lower case: western China, southern Beijing, western Mongolia, eastern Africa, northern North Korea, the central Gobi, the lower Yangtze River.

Abbreviated

When a term is used as a name and then subsequently a shorter term is used, then that shorter term may be used generically. If that is the case do not capitalize. ("The Tatra National Park is a tourist destination in Poland. Watch out for bears when visiting the national park.") [14] [15]

By context

Names of capitalization styles

The following names are given to systems of capitalization:

Sentence case

"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog."
The standard case used in English prose. Generally equivalent to the baseline universal standard of formal English orthography mentioned above; that is, only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other words which are generally capitalized by a more specific rule.

A variation is mid-sentence case which is identical to sentence case except that the first word is not capitalized (unless it would be capitalized by another rule). This type of letter case is used for entries in dictionaries.

Title case

"The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over the Lazy Dog."
Also known as headline case and capital case. All words capitalized, except for certain subsets defined by rules that are not universally standardized, often minor words such as "the" (as above), "of", or "and". Other commonly lowercase words are prepositions and coordinating conjunctions. [16] The standardization is only at the level of house styles and individual style manuals. (See Headings and publication titles.) A simplified variant is start case, where all words, including articles, prepositions, and conjunctions, start with a capital letter.

All caps

"THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG."
Also written as all-caps. Capital letters only. This style can be used for headlines and book or chapter titles at the top of a book page. It is commonly used in transcribed speech to indicate that a person is shouting, or to indicate a hectoring and obnoxious speaker. [17] [18] For this reason, it is generally discouraged. Long spans of Latin-alphabet text in all uppercase are harder to read because of the absence of the ascenders and descenders found in lowercase letters, which can aid recognition. [19] [20] In professional documents, a commonly preferred alternative to all caps text is the use of small caps to emphasize key names or acronyms, or the use of italics or (more rarely) bold. [21] In addition, if all caps must be used, it is customary in headings of a few words to slightly widen the spacing between the letters, by around 10% of the point height. This practice is known as tracking or letterspacing. [22]

Special cases

Compound names

Compound names are nouns that are made up of more than one stem, or a stem and one or more affixes. [lower-alpha 1] Names that are made up of several affixes and one or more nouns are not compound names under this definition, but noun phrases, that are made up of one or more separable affixes, and one or more nouns. Examples of the separable affixes may be found in List of family name affixes. [lower-alpha 2] Noun phrases are in this context treated as if they were nouns. So the general rule that nouns-as-names are capitalized in principle applies to compound names and noun-phrases-as-names as well. There are, however, exceptions to this rule that differ by language community.

Titles

The Chicago Manual of Style recommends that the titles of English-language artistic works (plays, novels, essays, paintings, etc.) capitalize the first word and the last word in the title. [28] Additionally, most other words within a title are capitalized as well; articles and coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized. [28] Sources disagree on the details of capitalizing prepositions. [28] For example, the Chicago Manual of Style recommends rendering all prepositions in lowercase, [29] whereas the APA style guide instructs: Capitalize major words in titles of books and articles within the body of the paper. Conjunctions, articles, and short prepositions are not considered major words; however, capitalize all words of four letters or more. [30]

In other languages, such as the Romance languages, only the first word and proper names are capitalized.

Acronyms

Acronyms are usually capitalized, with a few exceptions:

"O"

Accents

In most languages that use diacritics, these are treated the same way in uppercase whether the text is capitalized or all-uppercase. They may be always preserved (as in German) or always omitted (as in Greek) or often omitted (as in French). [31] Some attribute this to the fact that diacritics on capital letters were not available earlier on typewriters, and it is now becoming more common to preserve them in French and Spanish (in both languages the rule is to preserve them, [32] although in France and Mexico, for instance, schoolchildren are often erroneously taught that they should not add diacritics on capital letters).

However, in the polytonic orthography used for Greek prior to 1982, accents were omitted in all-uppercase words, but kept as part of an uppercase initial (written before rather than above the letter). The latter situation is provided for by title-case characters in Unicode. When Greek is written with the present day monotonic orthography, where only the acute accent is used, the same rule is applied. The accent is omitted in all-uppercase words but it is kept as part of an uppercase initial (written before the letter rather than above it). The dialytika (diaeresis) should also always be used in all-uppercase words (even in cases where they are not needed when writing in lowercase, e.g. ΑΫΛΟΣ — άυλος).

Digraphs and ligatures

Some languages treat certain digraphs as single letters for the purpose of collation. In general, where one such is formed as a ligature, the corresponding uppercase form is used in capitalization; where it is written as two separate characters, only the first will be capitalized. Thus Oedipus or Œdipus are both correct, but OEdipus is not. Examples with ligature include Ærøskøbing in Danish, where Æ/æ is a completely separate letter rather than merely a typographic ligature (the same applies in Icelandic); examples with separate characters are Llanelli in Welsh, where Ll is a single letter; and Ffrangeg in Welsh where Ff is equivalent to English F (whereas Welsh F corresponds to English V). [33] Presentation forms, however, can use doubled capitals, such as the logo of the National Library of Wales (Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru). The position in Hungarian is similar to the latter.

Initial mutation

In languages where inflected forms of a word may have extra letters at the start, the capitalized letter may be the initial of the root form rather than the inflected form. For example, in Irish, in the placename Sliabh na mBan, "(the) mountain of the women" (anglicized as Slievenamon), the word-form written mBan contains the genitive plural of the noun bean, "woman", mutated after the genitive plural definite article (i.e., "of the"). The written B is mute in this form.

Other languages may capitalize the initial letter of the orthographic word, even if it is not present in the base, as with definite nouns in Maltese that start with certain consonant clusters. For example, l-Istati Uniti (the United States) capitalize the epenthetic I, even though the base form of the word — without the definite article — is stati.

Case-sensitive English words

In English, there are a few capitonyms, which are words whose meaning (and sometimes pronunciation) varies with capitalization. For example, the month August versus the adjective august. Or the verb polish versus the adjective Polish.

See also

Notes

  1. Example: the Dutch name Verkerk, which is made up of the prefix Ver- and the noun kerk (church).
  2. Example: the Dutch name Van der Kerk is made up of the prefix van (which at the same time is a preposition); the article der (which is a declension of the definite article de); and the noun Kerk. The prefix Ver- is a contraction of the separable affixes, that has "bonded" with the noun. However, the surname Ver Huell is an example of a case where the prefix Ver has not yet become part of the name.
  3. Examples: Alexander von Humboldt, von Humboldt. Humboldt (German); Giovanni da Verrazzano, da Verrazzano, Verrazzano (Italian); Vasco da Gama, da Gama, Gama (Portuguese)
  4. as in the married names of women
  5. Examples: Cornelis de Witt, J. de Witt, Maria de Witt-van Berckel. But: the brothers De Witt. However, in Alexander Willem Maurits Carel Ver Huell Ver, though a separate affix, is not written with a lowercase letter, as Ver is not a preposition or a definite article as the exception requires.
  6. Examples: Van der Duyn van Maasdam; Van Nispen tot Pannerden.
  7. Example: k Heb er niets meer van gehoord.
  8. Examples: names like 't Hoen and 'sGravesande.
  9. An alternate technical term that overlaps with separable affix.
  10. Actually, this follows the French usage for the so-called Nobiliary particle, Cf. also [23]
  11. Examples: Martin Van Buren, not Martin van Buren; Ron DeSantis, not Ron De Santis; Leonardo DiCaprio, not Leonardo di Caprio; Karen Vanmeer not Karen Van Meer (fictional character played by Hedy Lamarr, who should have spelled her pseudonym "La Marr", like her model Barbara La Marr).

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References

  1. "Teitittely: oletteko kokeillut tätä?". Institute for the Languages of Finland. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
  2. General Guide to Perfected Spelling of the Indonesian Language, Section: Capital Letters (in Indonesian) from Indonesian Wikisource.
  3. Gschossmann-Hendershot, Elke; Feuerle, Lois (7 February 2014). Schaum's Outline of German Grammar, 5th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill Professional. p. 14. ISBN   978-0-07-182335-7. OCLC   881681594 . Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  4. Daniel Solling (June 2009). "Små bokstäver ökade avståndet till tyskarna" (in Swedish). Språktidningen. Retrieved 28 June 2016.
  5. Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, p.65
  6. See E. E. Cummings: Name and capitalization for further discussion.
  7. Friedman, Norman (1992). "Not "e. e. cummings"". Spring. 1: 114–121. Archived from the original on 2005-12-12. Retrieved December 13, 2005.
  8. Capitalization rules for days, months, demonyms and language-names in many languages from Meta-wiki
  9. See the entry Maiuscolo in the Italian Wikipedia for descriptions of various rules of capitalization in Italian and for references.
  10. Worldbirdnames.org Archived September 28, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  11. Doerr, Edd (November–December 2002). "Humanism unmodified". The Humanist. 62 (6). American Humanist Association: 1–2.
  12. Economist Style Guide, Capitalization – Places and for administrative areas (West Virginia, East Sussex).
  13. Council of Science Editors, Style Manual Committee. Scientific Style and format: the CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers, 7th ed. 2006. Section 9.7.3, P. 120. ISBN   978-0-9779665-0-9.
  14. Government of Canada, Public Works and Government Services Canada (8 October 2009). "capitalization: names of institutions". www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca.
  15. "PLACE-NAMES - National Geographic Style Manual". sites.google.com.
  16. "Title Capitalization Tool - Capitalize My Title - Title Case Tool". Capitalize My Title. Retrieved 2022-06-15.
  17. Butterick, Matthew. "All Caps". Practical Typography.
  18. Ilene Strizver (2011). "ALL CAPS: To set or not to set?". Fonts.com. Monotype Imaging. Retrieved 21 June 2011.; Cohen, Noam (4 February 2008). "Is Obama a Mac and Clinton a PC?". The New York Times . Retrieved 29 January 2011. Jason Santa Maria, creative director of Happy Cog Studios, which designs Web sites, detected a basic breach of netiquette. "Hillary's text is all caps, like shouting," he said.
  19. Wheildon, Colin (1995). Type and Layout: How Typography and Design Can Get your Message Across - Or Get in the Way. Berkeley: Strathmoor Press. p.  62. ISBN   978-0-9624891-5-0.
  20. Nielsen, Jakob. "Weblog Usability: The Top Ten Design Mistakes". Nielsen Norman Group. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  21. Butterick, Matthew. "Small caps". Practical Typography. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  22. Butterick, Matthew. "Letterspacing". Practical Typography. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  23. 1 2 Chicago Manual of Style (15th ed.). U. of Chicago Press. 2003. p. 314.
  24. "Persoonsnamen". Woordenlijst.org (in Dutch). Nederlandse Taalunie . Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  25. "Capital letter at the beginning of a sentence". Woordenlijst.org (in Dutch). Nederlandse Taalunie . Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  26. Oxford Manual of Style, R. M. Ritter ed., Oxford University Press, 2002
  27. Chicago Manual of Style (15th ed.). U. of Chicago Press. 2003. p. 313.
  28. 1 2 3 "Writer's Block - Writing Tips - Capitalization in Titles". Writersblock.ca. Archived from the original on October 9, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-28. Archived.
  29. "Capitalization, Titles". Chicagomanualofstyle.org. Retrieved 2012-10-28.
  30. Nordquist, Richard. "Capitalization Conventions for Title Case". ThoughtCo.
  31. "The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th Edition". The Chicago Manual of Style Online. Archived from the original on 2009-01-05. Retrieved 2019-01-01.
  32. 'Accentuation des majuscules' Questions de langue : Académie française
  33. Lewis, H (ed) Collins-Spurrell Welsh Dictionary Collins UK 1977 p. 10. ISBN   0-00-433402-7
  34. Vladimir Anić, Josip Silić: "Pravopisni priručnik hrvatskog ili srpskog jezika", Zagreb, 1986 (trans. Spelling handbook of Croato-Serbian language )
  35. "Z dopisů jazykové poradně". Naše řeč. 83 (4): 223–224. 2000.

Further reading

Capitalization Rules

  1. Check Capitalization rules
  2. if you want convertcase in to Capitalization Rules then you can above rules.
  3. Definition of capitalization
  4. Validate Capitalization Rules in Spanish Capitalización Mayúsculas
  5. Online Capitalization Case Converter