The Paradox of Religiosity–Secularism in Formal Religious Education

Abstract

Creating a conceptual unity is an important starting point for understanding a subject. It is more difficult to find a common definition if the concept in question is ‘religion, religiosity, secularism’, which can vary according to the field of the person making the definition, where he/she positions himself/herself in relation to religion, the characteristics of the religion he/she believes in (or does not believe in), and many other parameters. In order to draw the boundaries of this research correctly, it is necessary to clarify the development and changes in the concept of ‘religion’ and the related concepts of ‘religiosity and secularism’ in the historical process. Among the places where the effectiveness of these concepts at the theoretical level can be examined are the textbooks taught in Anatolian Imam Hatip High Schools. The nature or content of the fiqh textbooks taught in Imam Hatip High Schools, which can be exemplified as an educational institution of religious culture reinforcement in Turkey, is within the scope of this study. In connection with this subject, the aim of this study is to analyse the fiqh and fiqh reading textbooks taught in Anatolian Imam Hatip High Schools from the perspective of religiosity and secularism. Fiqh, from the perspective of Islamic theology, contains normative principles that govern personal and social practices. As textbooks, fiqh and fiqh readings were chosen because they are likely to provide data on the subject. This research employs a qualitative approach, utilising document analysis as its primary method to investigate these textbooks. The analysis is based on textbooks that were approved by the Ministry of National Education and taught during the 2023–2024 academic year. For the purposes of this study, only explicit verbal content was considered, while implicit messages were excluded. As a result of this study, it is understood that both books have a religiosity-centred perspective and that there are chapters in which changes are taken into consideration rather than secularism.

1. Introduction

Religiosity and secularism are of great importance for understanding modern society. Both concepts have been analysed in depth in historical and socio-cultural contexts, and the interaction between them plays a decisive role in different areas of social life (Erkan 2021). With the influence of Enlightenment thought in the West, the process of secularisation has become more pronounced, and this process has led to a series of changes in individual and social life (F. N. A. Özkan 2019).

In the case of Turkey, the dynamic between religiosity and secularism can be interpreted through textbooks in formal religious education. Anatolian Imam Hatip High Schools are schools that provide both academic and religious education in Turkey (Zengin and Hendek 2023). The aim of this study is to analyse fiqh and fiqh reading textbooks taught in Anatolian Imam Hatip High Schools from the perspective of religiosity and secularism. From the perspective of Islamic theology, fiqh has normative content regarding both personal and social practices. Fiqh and fiqh reading textbooks were chosen as books to provide data for this study because these books have a high potential to provide data on this subject. The research question is as follows: ‘How does the content of fiqh textbooks in formal religious education in Turkey approach religiosity and secularism?’

Critical discourse analysis covers both the theoretical and practical dimensions of discourse and serves as an important tool for examining issues such as discrimination and inequality in social life from a critical perspective (Van Dijk 2001). It aims to reveal the underlying power dynamics and ideologies that shape these phenomena. In this context, various dynamics, including cultural, economic, geographical, and intellectual factors, play an important role in structuring social life. The debates surrounding these dynamics are often deeply intertwined with ideology. Ideologies not only influence linguistic approaches but also shape perceptions of social problems. For this reason, critical discourse analysis proves to be a valuable method, especially for conducting conceptual analyses.

The document analysis technique, a qualitative research method, was used in this study. Document analysis is a detailed analysis of written documents containing information related to the phenomena or events analysed in the research process (Creswell 2017). The documents obtained can be converted into useful data (Merriam 1998). This research used document analysis as the primary method to analyse the textbooks. The analysis was based on textbooks that were approved by the Ministry of National Education and taught during the 2023–2024 academic year. In this respect, the study consists of two parts. The first part deals with the concepts of religion, religiosity, and secularism. In the second part, the content of fiqh and fiqh readings from textbooks taught in Anatolian Imam Hatip High Schools was analysed in terms of religiosity and secularism.

2. Religiosity and Secularism Conceptual Analysis

2.1. Religion and Religiosity

The word din is etymologically an Arabic word meaning ‘to obey’ and ‘to submit’ (al-Iṣfahānī 2006). Linguists recognise the word religion as masdar, from the Arabic root deyn. It is worth noting that similar words to the word religion, which emphasises dictionary meanings—such as obedience, punishment, reward, Islam, custom, account, dominance, victory, sovereignty, sultanate, property, sharia, and obedience—are also found in languages other than Semitic languages, such as Persian and Sanskrit (Çalışkan 2002). According to the Turkish Language Association (TDK), religion is defined as ‘a social institution that systematises the belief in and worship of God, supernatural powers, various sacred beings; an order that collects and provides beliefs of this nature in the form of rules, institutions, customs and symbols; an idea, belief or ideal that is believed in and adhered to; a cult’ (Türk Dil Kurumu (TDK) 2024). Based on the way the word religion is used in Islamic sources, this concept is handled in four groups in the literature: punishment, reward, judgement, and reckoning; superiority, dominance, humiliation, and compulsion; obedience, submission, service, and worship; custom, way, law, sharia, nation, and sect show the ways the concept of religion can be used (Tümer 1994). The expressions ‘obeying, obeying and obeyed’ are derived from the word in this sense. From the perspective of obedience and submission, sharia is also called religion (al-Iṣfahānī 2006).

In Western languages, the term religion is etymologically traced to two different roots: religare and relegere, meaning ‘to bind, to bind, to repeat a work’. Cicero, an early Roman philosopher, suggested that religion derives from the root religare, signifying ’to bind.’ Marshall characterises religion as a set of beliefs, symbols, and practices based on the idea of the sacred and uniting believers in a socio-religious community (Marshall 2005). Frankl, emphasising the psychotherapeutic function of religion, describes faith and science as two paths that take the individual one step further in search of the same truth (Frankl and Lapide 2021). Given the trajectory of religion in the Western world—from Nietzsche, who said that ‘God is dead’, to Karl Marx, who predicted that the superstructure of religion would spontaneously disintegrate in a secular society, to Gilles Kepel, the creator of the ‘revenge of God’ discourse, the path of religion in the world reveals the existence of different views.

It is not possible to discuss the concept of religiosity independently of religion. The accepted definition of religion also forms the boundaries of religiosity. At the same time, the fact that religiosity is based on personal experience diversifies the definitions. The term dindar (religious), meaning ‘one who believes in and is devoted to God,’ originates from the addition of the Persian suffix -dar to the Arabic word din (Devellioğlu 1970). Etymologically, dindar is derived from the concept of religion, similar to the English terms religiosity and religious, which also stem from the word religion. In the dictionary (TDK), dindar is defined as ‘one who has a strong belief in religion, (one) who adheres to the rules of religion, mütedeyyyin’, while dindarlık is defined as the state of being religious (Türk Dil Kurumu (TDK) 2024). Vergote (1999) describes religiosity as the acknowledgement of God as the source of existence. Marshall explains religiosity as ‘following religious rules and believing in religious teachings’ (Marshall 2005). Okumuş, on the other hand, sees religiosity as a form of religious attitude and experience that the individual manifests on the axis of faith–action (Okumuş 2005). It is possible to define religiosity as the heart and physical bond of the individual to the religion he/she accepts. What is meant by heart connection is the closeness to the accepted religion in terms of belief, emotion, and thought. The physical bond refers to the commitment to the rituals and behavioural patterns of the religion.

In a rapidly changing world, the perception of religiosity, perspectives on religiosity, and the indicators of religious life are also undergoing significant transformation. The religiosity of individuals who become individualised and lonely in the crowds of the virtual world also evolves towards individualisation and loneliness. This change is more noticeable in religions with religious socialisation at the forefront.

In both the psychology of religion and the sociology of religion literature on religiosity, efforts to create definitions and typologies and explain the dimensions of religiosity reveal the difficulty in making sense of religiosity. Clarifying the definition of religion and religiosity will also help in understanding secularisation.

2.2. Secular and Secularism1

In the dictionary, secular is used in the sense of ‘belonging to secular life, independent of religion’. TDK also uses the word ‘worldism’ for the concept of secularism and defines it as ‘a doctrine that considers individual participation important and advocates religion to be separate and autonomous from the state’ (Türk Dil Kurumu (TDK) 2024). It is possible to define secularism as purification from religion and secularism as the process of this purification (Akgül 1999). At the same time, secularism has a normative aspect beyond its descriptive meaning (Kutay 2019).

The concept of secular, which comes from the Latin root ‘saeculum’, is used in the sense of being in the world. In this study, the concept of secular is used in the sense of individual point of view different from secularism. It has a feature that includes both time and space connotations (al-Attâs 2016). It can be seen that the word secular etymologically passed from the Latin word secularity to English. It means ‘current time, present time’ (Aydın 2008). From an individual perspective, secularisation, which is interpreted as one of the results of the modernisation process, can be seen as the disruption of obedience to sacred authority. In terms of the conceptual use of secularisation in the West, the Renaissance and Reformation movement are turning points. It is not possible to say that the social acceptance of secularism or the meaning attributed to the concept has progressed at the same level in all societies. It is not very possible for an individual to think independently of the historical time period in which he/she was born and developed and to go beyond the intellectual system of the period while making sense of these concepts. Secularism, one of the concepts of the modern period, is also within the limits of the historical process in which it is experienced. Interpretations of secularism, particularly those that emerged in the West, must consider the unique conceptual and cultural foundations of the Western tradition.

Secularisation has a parallel perspective with the individualisation of modern society. In Weber’s words, with the understanding of secular society, the world has been cleansed of magic (Weber 1996). The result of modernisation is secularisation. Secularisation is often perceived as a process that occurs to the detriment of religion. It is commonly understood as the diminishing influence of religion in individual and social life, as well as the exclusion or deferral of religious principles in decision-making processes. In this classical perspective, secularisation is seen as a continuation of modernisation and is based on the assumption that the authority of the sovereignty stemming from religion, as well as individual piety, has been shaken and even withdrawn from life. On the other hand, there are those who consider secularisation a change of form rather than a decrease in the influence of religion. Critics of the secularisation thesis challenge the assumption that individuals in earlier historical periods were inherently more religious than those in the modern era. There is also a counter-thesis that sees secularisation as a change in the understanding of religiosity and an emphasis on individual religiosity, claiming that classical secularisation has no practical equivalent. It is understood that the thesis against classical secularisation coincides with similar periods with criticisms of modernity and that it emerged at a time when religious values were on the rise again in the world. As a third interpretation, there is also a point of view that accepts secularisation as differentiation and sees it as the removal of institutions from the sphere of influence and authority of religion. The emphasis on change in each perspective should not be overlooked. In societies experiencing secularisation, the influence of religion and its teachings in daily life decreases, religious teachings change form and become individualised.

Kirman explains that the classical point of view, which interpreted secularisation as the absence of religion in the social sphere and its withdrawal from the stage over time, has lost its effect and provides examples that falsify Berger’s predictions supporting the secularisation thesis. At the same time, he cites examples of the impossibility of verifying the secularisation thesis and states that it is not possible to prove the thesis of a more religious society in the last century. Kirman adds that even if the truth of the thesis is accepted, there will be no secularisation towards the end of the 20th century (Kirman 2008). Three different paradigms come to the fore in the context of secularisation: the old paradigm, which argues that religion loses its importance in modern society and will disappear over time; the new paradigm, which states that religion has evolved towards individual religiosity in modern society; and the alternative paradigm, which conveys the shortcomings of the old–new paradigm and deals with the phenomenon of religion in the context of countries outside Western geography (Özay 2006). It should be stated that the secularisation paradigm is not concerned with the internal belief of the individual but with the external reflections of this belief. At the same time, it is also within the boundaries of the same paradigm to question the counterpart of the commands and prohibitions of the sacred in individual life (Ertit 2015). The above analysis refers to the classical understanding of secularisation and the counter-theses challenging it.

Whether the phenomenon of secularisation is handled from the perspective of the individual or from the perspective of social institutions varies in terms of the conclusions reached. While it is possible to understand secularisation as the weakening of individual religiosity, it is also possible to explain it as a decrease in participation in collective worship and a weakening of the social aspect of religion. At the same time, secularisation can be understood not as a decrease in the influence of religion on the individual or society but as a change in the form of religious interpretations and the emergence of new perspectives in religions. In the same direction, Marty states that the distinction between secular and religious is not very clear and that many people blend both secular and religious elements together (Marty 2003). In terms of the areas where secularism is dominant, the applicability of the concept in the practical field varies. From the point of view of the administrative sphere of the nation-state, while the application area of the classical secular perspective has very wide borders, its applicability in the individual and social field does not seem possible in practice. In terms of the dynamics of this study, it should be noted that different classifications of secularisation and the meanings attributed to religiosity constitute the starting point.

3. Fiqh Textbook

In terms of meaning and content, the science of fiqh has a feature that aims to establish a connection between the provisions in the Qur’an and Sunnah regarding human behaviour and both the individual and social spheres. The primary objectives of the science of fiqh are referred to as ‘the aims of the Shari’ah’. These objectives emphasise the regulation of relationships: between God and individuals, between individuals, between individuals and the state, and between states. This interconnected framework highlights the multifaceted nature of fiqh, extending its relevance across personal, social, and institutional dimensions. The fiqh textbook includes a section discussing the purpose and significance of the science of fiqh. The first sentences of the book are about the general aims of the science of fiqh: ‘To make us aware that the purpose of our existence is to serve Allah Almighty, to contribute to living a life in accordance with the pleasure of Allah and to transform the provisions of the Qur’an and Sunnah into a lifestyle.’ The first sentences of the book seem to emphasise individual piety. Similarly, it is requested that people’s needs for social order be discussed within the framework of the purpose of fiqh (Çeker 2022).

3.1. Emphasis on Piety

The fiqh textbook focuses on the practical applications of theoretical religious judgments. When piety is characterised as the unity of faith and deeds and the attitude towards it, how the textbook conveys these provisions can be decisive. At the same time, it is stated in the book that moral principles should be taken into account when making fiqh judgements (Çeker 2022). Even though no statement is made about the source of morality, the general integrity of the subject shows that religion-based moral principles are meant.

One of the topics mentioned in the book is related to economic parameters. Religion’s prohibition of interest is mentioned (Çeker 2022). The clarity regarding the prohibition of interest shows a perspective far from secular interpretation. When secularisation is limited as worldisation to the detriment of religion, it is understood that the secular perspective handles economic parameters in terms of periodic variables and prefers a more local interpretation of interest.

In the book, the fact that it is stated that the performance of obligatory prayers in congregation and the total abandonment or neglect of the sunnah as signs of religion will damage the symbol of religion shows a piety-centred perspective. Under the same section, it is stated that adultery, consuming alcoholic beverages, lying, gambling, and engaging in usury are strictly prohibited by religion and that denying these prohibitions results in estrangement from the faith. Emphasising the forbiddenness of some acts that can be seen as individual secularisation and stating that those who deny them will fall away from religion draws the boundaries of religiosity. One of the examples given in the book is that when a shop owner rents his shop for a market, the rental fee is halal, but when the same person rents his shop for a casino, the money received is haram (Çeker 2022). These exemplifications seem to strengthen the perspective on religiosity.

Similarly, in the sentences describing the qualities of Muslims, religious people are depicted rather than secular individuals. The text conveys that a comfortable life may be pursued without engaging in wastefulness and emphasises that individuals who own luxury items such as yachts, boats, and automobiles should remain mindful of the rights of the poor. In connection with the subject, according to this explanation, the issue of property has caused great debates in history, and property debates have been at the basis of ideologies such as capitalism, communism and socialism. In the same way, attention is drawn to the difference between the consumptive understanding of ideologies characterised as human systems and the Islamic economy. There is a continuation of the point of view that opposes the passion for luxury. As one of the situations in which secularism is depicted, there is a tendency towards luxury consumption. The fact that Muslim identity and luxury consumption are not used side by side means that piety is chosen against secularisation. After the warning about luxury consumption, it is emphasised that the understanding of ‘a morsel and a cardigan’ (a minimalist approach to life focusing on spiritual fulfilment over material wealth) does not coincide with Islam’s perspective on worldliness and that a life in which people observe the balance of both the world and the hereafter is more desirable (Çeker 2022). It is conveyed that wealth is a source of life for humanity, that it is impossible to protect health and religion without wealth, and that wealth is a means of testing. The criterion for earning and spending wealth is determined by the rules set by Allah, and the basic criterion is to earn wealth through legitimate means.

The section on inheritance law in the fiqh textbook is grounded in Islamic law, referencing the provisions outlined in the Holy Qur’an regarding the allocation of shares to heirs (Nisâ 4:11–12, 33, 176; Kuran Yolu Türkçe Meal ve Tefsiri 2023). The Inheritance Law of the Turkish Civil Code includes rules related to inheritance (TMK art. 495–682). At this point, it should be noted that the division of inheritance in the modern legal system has rules that differ from Islamic law.

The following chapters of the book draw the boundaries of the economic system. The rulings on topics such as stocks, stock exchange, insurance types, interest, and banking are presented with proofs, and thus, it attempts to prevent all situations that push the parties to unexpected victimisation. In addition to the conceptual analyses on economic topics, the subject is handled within the framework of the halal and haram concepts while dealing with topics according to changing conditions. For example, it is stated that any insurance whose subject is forbidden by religion is haram—that is, the legitimacy of the main activity for transactions to be made on stocks—and the situation will be legitimate if it avoids loans with interest (Çeker 2022). Similarly, when crimes requiring hadd, qisas, and diyah are classified, the perspective aligns entirely with the traditional theological interpretation, as expected. (Hadd, qisas, and diyah are the types of punishment defined in Islamic jurisprudence for certain offences.) Drinking alcohol, adultery, and apostasy are considered offences requiring hadd punishments (Çeker 2022).

3.2. Emphasis on Secularism

The topics conveyed in the fiqh textbook mostly contain expressions aimed at contributing to the religiosity of individuals. However, with the changes experienced in the modern world, it is understood that the approaches to some issues are compatible with the world in which we live, even if they cannot be expressed as secularism.

The desire to reveal the relationship of fiqh with law, psychology, and sociology draws attention to its connection with modern sciences. At the same time, it is thought that the science of fiqh is directly related to religious sciences and has an indirect relationship with other sciences. In the book, the perspective of religion on changes in the field of medicine is interpreted. The discussion of topics such as cloning, organ transplantation, in vitro fertilisation, and DNA testing within the framework of the book and the sunnah provides answers according to the perspective of religion in solving both individual and social problems. The science of fiqh needs the data of other sciences in order to talk about the solutions to problems that arise in modern times (Çeker 2022). For example, civil law has a feature that regulates family relations, but there are limits drawn by Islamic law in this regard. In fact, the most detailed provisions in the Holy Qu’ran are related to family law (Kahraman 2022b). At this point, the right of application that modern law provides to each spouse at the point of termination of the family union is in harmony with fiqh literature. In fiqh literature, it is stated that divorce is performed by the man, but the woman can also request it, or the marriage union can be terminated by a court decision (Çeker 2022).

Again, in the sacred texts of the Islamic religion, the Prophet Muhammad’s sunnahs are shown as an example for believers, such as the way he dressed, the way he wore clothes, the way he ate, and his hairstyle; these are grouped under a sub-section (Ahzâb 33:21). Emphasising that it is not makruh to abandon the behaviours described as zawabid sunnah in this way is a response to those who see cultural behaviours under the auspices of piety (Çeker 2022). It is also possible to see the exemplification in the same verse as having a timeless message (Karataş 2013). This distinction separates cultural practices from religious responsibilities and seems to encourage a more detailed understanding of religiosity.

4. Fiqh Readings Textbook

4.1. Emphasis on Piety

The fiqh readings course has content that deals with fiqh issues in connection with the science of fiqh, the impact of religion on social and economic life, and situations related to fiqh positions that arise in daily life. The first unit of the textbook discusses the subject of fiqh and contemporary life in connection with the content of the course. In terms of theology, it is possible that the science of fiqh contains dynamism and is a part of the lives of believers because it is not detached from life.

One of the chapters in the book discusses provisions for marriage. In this section, the limits regarding the pre-marital meeting are noted. It is recommended that prospective spouses should see each other beforehand in order to lay the foundation of the family institution firmly (Kahraman 2022a). However, the fact that a third person is requested to be present from the woman’s side, if possible, means that the traditional perspective on this issue should be preserved. In the same topic, it is pointed out that the decision to marry without the permission of the woman’s father before marriage is not correct, and references are used from primary sources (Kahraman 2022a). The belief status of individuals in the marriage decision is important within the boundaries of Islam. It is understood that cultures are getting closer in the globalising world. It is observed that Muslim men and women marry individuals with different beliefs (Karakaya Elmalı 2022). In connection with this issue, it is stated in the book of fiqh readings that it is haram for a Muslim man or woman to marry a polytheist or a non-believer. One of the exceptions in this regard is that Muslim men are allowed to marry a woman from Ahl al-Book (Kahraman 2022b). In this sense, diversity of beliefs in marriage decisions is not approved for individuals who describe themselves as religious. In addition to the norms of marriage, attention should also be drawn to the rules of divorce law. It is mentioned that a man may divorce a woman three times in order to terminate the marital union, and the conditions for remarrying the same person are mentioned (Al-Baqarah 2:228–229). Divorce is defined as ‘…the termination of the marriage union by the decision of the judge as a result of a lawsuit filed by one spouse based on one of the reasons stipulated in the law while the spouses are still alive’ (Akıntürk and Karaman 2014). In Islamic law, divorce is divided in two, as ric’î and bâin talaq, according to whether there is a return or not (Yüksek 2011). Even if it is not mentioned in detail in the fiqh book, the section related to divorce is theologically based. At this point, it is stated that the state has the authority to enact legal arrangements in accordance with the conditions and requirements of the time. In terms of the continuation of family unity, the fact that the husband is the head of the family in Islam is among the issues mentioned in the book of fiqh readings. However, this situation is defined as a responsibility for family unity rather than a right (Kahraman 2022a). In the modern world, where there are debates about the distribution of duties, responsibilities, and attributes of spouses in the family, this perspective supports the traditional perspective. The situation is different in terms of civil law. Paragraph I of Article 152 of the former Civil Code states that ‘the husband is the head of the union’ (TMK 2001, General Provisions of Marriage). With amendments, the headship of the family was abolished in the Turkish Civil Code, and this situation ensured equality between men and women in terms of the family institution (Akıncı 2024).

In addition to family law, the issue of euthanasia, as a health-related topic, also deserves to be discussed. According to the Turkish Language Association (TDK), euthanasia is defined as the right to die in the dictionary (Türk Dil Kurumu (TDK) 2024). The religious perspective on euthanasia is quite clear. Whether it is active or passive euthanasia, it is understood that Islam defines euthanasia as suicide (Kahraman 2022a). There is no separate law on euthanasia in Turkey. Therefore, euthanasia is accepted within the framework of intentional manslaughter. Article 13 of the ‘Regulation on Medical Deontology’ does not allow even passive euthanasia (Tıbbî Deontoloji Nizâmnâmesi 1960, art. 14). The absence of a legal article on euthanasia means that there cannot even be a social discussion at this point (İlhan 2011). As far as it is understood from the data, the theological assumptions on euthanasia and Turkey’s legal assumptions are in harmony.

The issue of abortion, as a health-related topic, is of interest to different disciplines. For this reason, it is possible to find different perspectives on abortion in the fields of health, law, and ethics. From a theological point of view, the religious ruling on abortion is quite clear. The Qur’anic verse ‘Do not kill your children for fear of poverty’ (Al-An’am 6:151; Isrâ 17:31) and the Prophet Muhammad’s ruling that those who intentionally abort a child or cause this should pay financial compensation are among the norms of this issue (Bukhârî 25–26). The basis of Islam’s prohibition of abortion (unless there is a situation that endangers the mother’s health) lies in the fact that the human being begins the adventure of existence with the formation of the embryo after fertilisation (Kahraman 2022a). Theologically, the information about abortion in the book of fiqh readings is handled as the removal of the child in the womb, and the provisions are conveyed in this way. In fact, abortion is also medically referred to in some procedures performed by scraping different organs of the body (S. Özkan 2012). In Turkey, abortion is one of the most important agenda items for social scientists, health professionals, non-governmental organisations, and policymakers. In addition to demographic variables, cultural and socio-economic factors may be decisive in deciding on abortion (Adalı and Çavlin 2019). From a legal point of view, paragraphs 2 and 6 of Article 99 and Article 100 of the Turkish Penal Code (TCK art. 99/2, 99/6), 100) determine acts that will be considered offences in relation to abortion (TCK art. 99/2, 99/6), 100). On May 12, 2003, a draft TCK was submitted to the Presidency of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and accepted. In the case of the termination of pregnancy for criminological reasons or as a result of a crime, a period of 20 weeks was determined (Yılmaz 2019). From this point of view, the theological and legal perspectives differ from each other.

4.2. Emphasis on Secularism

The first chapter of the book Fiqh and Contemporary Life begins with a question: ‘Do fiqh rules change with the change of circumstances? Why?’ (Kahraman 2022a). Change may lead to the formation of a new organisation, or it may occur in the short or long term. Social change continues in every place and time period. It is possible to address the above question in this context. The answer to the question of whether the rules of jurisprudence change with changes in circumstances can determine the side of individuals in this paradox. Under the chapter on this subject, it is stated that the science of fiqh is expected to produce solutions in the face of industrialisation; science and technology; and developments in the field of economy. This situation is summarised in connection with the vitality and dynamism of the science of fiqh. Among the topics that can maintain this dynamism is the possibility of reconsidering fiqh rulings within the framework of new conditions. The situation is summarised by the jurisprudential rule ‘It cannot be denied that the rulings change with the change of time’ (Kahraman 2022b). Even if this situation does not draw a direct boundary regarding secularism, it harbours change in itself.

In this context, in the book, the concept of ‘ihtilâf-ı metâl’ is encountered in the narration about fasting. This concept, which is used in the sense of changing the place and time of the moon’s appearance, includes the reality that the world has evolved into a small village with the development of technological possibilities (Kahraman 2022b). It is possible to consider this title the application of changes in technology to religious interpretations rather than secularism. Similarly, in the Xth Period Meeting of the Islamic Fiqh Academy affiliated with the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, updates were made regarding situations that do not break the fast. Situations related to tooth extraction, sublingual pills, filling, and eye and nose drops were updated as situations that do not break the fast (Kahraman 2022a). Attention was also drawn to changes in zakat, a sacred financial practice. Within the framework of changing conditions, most contemporary scholars have reached a consensus stating that new sources of income will be subject to zakat (Kahraman 2022a).

In the family unit of the book, the issue of engagement is discussed, and it is stated that practices such as religious marriage or imam marriage are not legally binding. However, it is pointed out that religious marriage continues to be important for families and in the DİB’s consultation meeting on this issue (Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı 2002). Similarly, the topics of marriage and divorce are discussed separately in the fiqh textbook and are in line with the other content of the fiqh textbook.

The last chapter of the fiqh textbook draws attention to possible ethical problems related to technological advances. Technological developments are seen as an opportunity for the well-being of humanity. Attention is drawn to the duty of people to build the world (Kahraman 2022a). Apart from the opportunities provided by modern science and technology, it is stated that a lack of clear boundaries in this regard can damage human honour and dignity. Drawing attention to the science of bioethics aims to solve problems that may arise (Kahraman 2022a).

Developments in the fields of medicine and technology have raised different problems. In particular, what and how much is permissible in these fields are among the questions that need to be answered. As a branch of science, bioethics puts forward arguments on topics such as genetic studies, human copying, organ transplantation, artificial organs, and medical experiments. Theology will also have something to say about these topics. At this point, bioethical problems continue to form the agenda of the Islamic world. In the chapter, which draws attention to the fact that organ transplantation is an honourable behaviour for the donor, it is pointed out that transplantation procedures are not accessible for poor people due to socio-economic differences (Kahraman 2022a). The chapter asks whether the verse ‘On that day their tongues, hands and feet will bear witness against them for what they have done (sins)’ in the Holy Qur’an violates the dignity of the individual in relation to body integrity (Nur 24:24). Since there is no clear ruling on organ transplantation, jurists have made judgements by analogy. Therefore, organ transplantation should be carried out with the permission of the individual or their relatives, ensuring that sick individuals regaining their health is not seen as a violation of the dignity of the deceased (Kahraman 2022a). Aesthetic interventions for therapeutic purposes are permitted by Islam. Interventions for therapeutic purposes are especially encouraged. However, interventions to look beautiful or to attract attention are characterised as disrupting the individual’s nature. Situations aimed at disrupting this nature are not allowed (Kahraman 2022a). New medical technologies used in pregnancy are divided into groups within themselves, and it is emphasised that pregnancy should consist of elements belonging to men and women within the marriage union. Regardless of which technology is used, the main point is the use of the sperm and eggs of individuals who are still in a marital union. Apart from these situations, surrogate motherhood, the use of sperm, eggs, or the uterus from someone other than the parents is not considered permissible (Kahraman 2022a). This perspective draws attention to the harmonisation of medical advances in connection with the sanctity of marriage, as well as moral principles derived from theology.

5. Conclusions

This study, which aims to examine the emphasis on secularism and religiosity in formal religious education through fiqh textbooks, has revealed that there are different perspectives on both concepts. Fiqh, as a religious science that tries to regulate the individual’s communication with the creator and other people, seems to try to strengthen religiosity by focusing on religious rulings and worship. The examples provided from the primary sources of Islam support this situation. In fact, the interpretations that can be expressed as secularism in the books examined seem to be aimed at ensuring the adaptation of individuals to changes rather than moving away from institutional religiosity. However, it is expected that changes and developments in the individual, social, economic, and technological fields will create new problems, and the need for a fatwa in this regard is an expected situation.

The content of formal religious education courses seeks to strengthen religiosity while, at the same time, striving to strike a balance by being part of a secular curriculum. At the same time, it aims to increase individuals’ awareness of religiosity despite the fact that they come from an increasingly secularised social life. The science of fiqh is one of the ways to establish this balance, providing solutions to innovations in a changing world and drawing boundaries. At this point, by using religious education as a tool that encourages reconciliation instead of conflict, it is possible for students to have a religious perspective despite being a part of modern life. Otherwise, it is possible that students will experience identity conflicts and balance problems between different value systems. However, it is understood that these textbooks were not prepared in a way that is detached from life and that they were written in the light of new developments without conflict with the existing system.

This study revealed that fiqh textbooks aim to facilitate the process of individuals’ adaptation to modern life while strengthening their religiosity. This research shows that these textbooks are prepared in accordance with the needs of the age, without clashing with the existing system, and thus help students to maintain a balance in developing their identity. It was also observed that religious education is used as a reconciliation tool for students to gain a religious perspective in modern life.

Similarly, in geographies with different religious beliefs, there may be areas where religiosity and secularism differ from each other. Topics related to faith are not much affected by the paradox of religiosity and secularism. However, when the subject is a field such as fiqh, the religious perspective and the secular perspective may differ. This study on fiqh texts in terms of formal religious education has shown that the texts move from religiosity as expected. At the same time, as a result of the study, it is also understood that theology has raised questions that await answers in a changing world regarding its agenda.