Etruscan language
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- Related Topics:
- language isolate
- extinct language
Etruscan language, language isolate spoken by close neighbours of the ancient Romans. The Romans called the Etruscans Etrusci or Tusci; in Greek they were called Tyrsenoi or Tyrrhenoi; in Umbrian and Italic language their name can be found in the adjective turskum. The Etruscans’ name for themselves was rasna or raśna.
The Etruscans lived in Italy in the region of modern Tuscany, in an area bounded by the Arno River on the north, the Tiber River on the southeast, and the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west. At one time they controlled most of an area extending south from Milan through Marzabotto and Sarsina to the Adriatic Sea north of Ancona, and to the southwest their rule extended as far as Capua, Naples, and Pompeii. For the history of the Etruscans and Etruria, see ancient Italic people.
Records and scholarship
The Etruscan language is known mainly from epigraphic records originating in the Tuscan area and dating from the 7th century bc to the first years of the Christian Era. There are some 10,000 of these inscriptions, mainly brief and repetitious epitaphs or dedicatory formulas, as well as votive or owner’s inscriptions on paintings in tombs and accompanying engraved figures on small artifacts such as metal mirrors. There are, however, some remarkable exceptions to the general brevity of the inscriptions, and there are important differences in their origins. The longest single text, of 281 lines (about 1,300 words), now in the National Museum at Zagreb, is written on a roll of linen that had been cut into strips and used in Egypt as a wrapping for a mummy; a clay tablet found at Capua contains some 250 words; a stone slab from Perugia has two adjacent sides elegantly engraved with an inscription of 46 lines (some 125 words); a bronze model of a liver found at Piacenza, which probably represents the Etruscan microcosm in a form used for instruction in divination, has some 45 words; and a heavy rectangular block found on the island of Lemnos in the northern Aegean has an engraving of what is probably a warrior with one inscription of perhaps 18 words surrounding the head and another of 16 words in three lines on an adjacent side. In 1964 two inscriptions on gold tablets, one in Phoenician and the other in Etruscan, were unearthed at Pyrgi.
Despite many attempts at decipherment and some claims of success, the Etruscan records still defy translation. While the possibility always remains that an imaginative conjecture or a brilliant inference will suddenly provide the key to the mystery, this now seems remote. The etymological method of investigation, which ultimately depends upon the recognition of presumed cognates from related languages, seems to have failed because no clear and certain relationship between Etruscan and any other language has ever been established. The procedure sometimes called the combinatory method now appears to be the most efficacious if not indeed the only useful one. It requires, first, that note be made of anything unusual in the provenance of the object on which Etruscan writing is found (such as that the mummy wrapping came from Egypt and the Lemnos inscription from the Aegean) and likewise of anything unusual in the object itself (e.g., that it is a bronze replica of a liver or the representation of a god or mythological figure). Finally, each word and phrase and formula is compared with every recurrence of the same element or elements elsewhere, and all variations in the physical and the linguistic contexts are recorded. By this means it has been possible to assign some words to grammatical categories such as noun and verb, to identify some inflectional endings, and to assign meanings to a few words of very frequent occurrence.
The problem of Etruscan origins is insoluble until the language can be translated. While nothing at all is certain other than the existence of Etruscans in Italy, some Etruscan writing in Egypt, and an Etruscan inscription on Lemnos, the weight of all the evidence seems to favour a non-Italic but certainly Mediterranean place of origin of the Etruscan people. It is unlikely, therefore, that the Etruscan language is genetically related to any language or language family existing in an area remote from the Mediterranean. On the other hand, it does not follow that Etruscan must be related to a language or language fragment that can be found in the Mediterranean area.
The Etruscan alphabet
Etruscan is written in an alphabet probably derived from one of the Greek alphabets. It is of very great importance that Etruscan is written in a recognizable alphabet related to the Greek and Semitic because sound values can be assigned with some degree of precision to each symbol. Etruscan writing proceeded from right to left and in earliest times had no word division or punctuation. In about the 6th century bc a system of points, or dots, consisting of four, three, or two dots inscribed vertically, was introduced to mark word boundaries and, in some instances, apparently, to indicate syllables and possibly abbreviations.
There were four vowels in Etruscan, i, e, a, and u or o, and symbols in the alphabet for p, t, c, m, n, l, r, z and for the equivalents of the Greek phi, theta, and chi, which in Etruscan as in classical Greek were the aspirated stops ph, th, ch (pronounced as p, t, k with an added brief puff of air). There were two sibilants, written s and ś, for which the precise pronunciation is uncertain; two front fricatives, f and v, articulated either with the two lips (bilabial) or with the lower lip approaching the upper front teeth (labiodental); and an h, which nearly always occurs at the beginning of words and is used to represent, inconsistently, the rough breathing of Greek (e.g., Greek Hēraklēs, Etruscan hercle or ercle). There were also a k and a q, of which the precise pronunciation is unknown. A marked tendency to make all vowels in a word similar or identical (qualitative vowel harmony) is characteristic: Greek Klutaimēstra, which if transliterated directly into Etruscan would be cluthemestha, actually occurs as cluthumustha and clutmsta.
Both historical changes and dialectal differences can be observed. Diphthongs became single letters. Thus Greek Aiwas became Etruscan aivas, eivas, and evas, successively; au alternated with a; eu (like ai) became e (Greek Kleopatra is Etruscan clepatra; Greek Poludeukēs is, with Etruscan vowel harmony, Pultuce). Among consonants the most noticeable changes are c to ch to h (e.g., casri becomes chasri, caspr becomes haspr); similarly, p changes to ph to f to h and t to th to h. Throughout the history of Etruscan, a first syllable usually remains unchanged, whereas later syllables tend to weaken or lose vowels, at least in writing. Older Etruscan lavtun “family” becomes in later Etruscan lavtn; other examples are mutana changing to mutna, Greek Adonis written atunis and then atuns, Greek Alexandros appearing as elchsntre. The consonant cluster of elchsntre, while extreme, is not untypical of Etruscan spelling; words thus written have led some to suggest that a very economical spelling system may have been used that was far removed from the reality of pronunciation, requiring the introduction of lightly stressed vowels in actual utterance. (For a short history of the Etruscan alphabet, see alphabet: Etruscan alphabet.)