Macadamia

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Macadamia
Macadamia nuts on tree.JPG
Macadamia nuts
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Proteales
Family: Proteaceae
Subfamily: Grevilleoideae
Tribe: Macadamieae
Subtribe: Macadamiinae
Genus: Macadamia
F.Muell.
Type species
Macadamia integrifolia
Species

Macadamia is a genus of four species of trees in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. [1] [2] They are indigenous to Australia, native to northeastern New South Wales and central and southeastern Queensland specifically. Two species of the genus are commercially important for their fruit, the macadamia nut /ˌmækəˈdeɪmiə/ (or simply macadamia). Global production in 2015 was 160,000 tonnes (180,000 short tons). [3] Other names include Queensland nut, bush nut, maroochi nut, bauple nut and, in the US, they are also known as Hawaii nut. [4] It was an important source of bushfood for the Aboriginal peoples.

Contents

Fresh macadamia nut with husk or pericarp cut in half Bolivia Macadamia (4370865469).jpg
Fresh macadamia nut with husk or pericarp cut in half
Stages of a Macadamia integrifolia nut: unripe, ripe, husk peeled, deshelled Starr-081111-0455-Macadamia integrifolia-different stages-Makawao-Maui (24299912723).jpg
Stages of a Macadamia integrifolia nut: unripe, ripe, husk peeled, deshelled
Roasted macadamia nuts with sawn nutshell, one cracked open Macadamia nuts, with one cracked and exposing the nut.jpg
Roasted macadamia nuts with sawn nutshell, one cracked open

The nut was first commercially produced on a wide scale in Hawaii, where Australian seeds were introduced in the 1880s, and for more than a century they were the world's largest producer. [5] [6] South Africa has been the world's largest producer of the macadamia since the 2010s.

The macadamia is the only widely grown food plant that is native to Australia. [7]

Description

Macadamia is an evergreen genus that grows 2–12 m (7–40 ft) tall.

The leaves are arranged in whorls of three to six, lanceolate to obovate or elliptic in shape, 60–300 mm (2+1⁄2–12 in) long and 30–130 mm (1+1⁄8–5+1⁄8 in) broad, with an entire or spiny-serrated margin. The flowers are produced in a long, slender, and simple raceme 50–300 mm (2–12 in) long, the individual flowers 10–15 mm (3⁄8–9⁄16 in) long, white to pink or purple, with four tepals. The fruit is a hard, woody, globose follicle with a pointed apex containing one or two seeds. The nutshell ("coat") is particularly tough and requires around 2000 N to crack. The shell material is five times harder than hazelnut shells and has mechanical properties similar to aluminum. It has a Vickers hardness of 35. [8] [9]

Taxonomy

Species

ImageScientific NameDistribution
Starr 080715-9228 Macadamia integrifolia.jpg Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche south east Queensland and northern New South Wales
Macadamia jansenii juvenile.jpg Macadamia jansenii C.L.Gross & P.H.WestonQueensland
Macadamia ternifolia kz2.jpg Macadamia ternifolia F.Muell. Queensland
Macadamia tetraphylla in Hackfalls Arboretum (6).jpg Macadamia tetraphylla L.A.S.Johnson Queensland

Nuts from M. jansenii and M. ternifolia contain cyanogenic glycosides. [10] [11] The other two species are cultivated for the commercial production of macadamia nuts for human consumption.

Previously, more species with disjunct distributions were named as members of this genus Macadamia. [2] Genetics and morphological studies published in 2008 show they have separated from the genus Macadamia, correlating less closely than thought from earlier morphological studies. [2] The species previously named in the genus Macadamia may still be referred to overall by the descriptive, non-scientific name of macadamia.

Formerly included in the genus
Lasjia P.H.Weston & A.R.Mast , formerly Macadamia until 2008
Catalepidia P.H.Weston, formerly Macadamia until 1995
Virotia L.A.S.Johnson & B.G.Briggs , formerly Macadamia until the first species renaming began in 1975 and comprehensive in 2008

Etymology

The German-Australian botanist Ferdinand von Mueller gave the genus the name Macadamia in 1857 in honour of the Scottish-Australian chemist, medical teacher, and politician John Macadam, who was the honorary Secretary of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria beginning in 1857. [15]

Cultivation

Macadamia integrifolia flowers Macadamia integrifolia, buds.jpg
Macadamia integrifolia flowers

The macadamia tree is usually propagated by grafting and does not begin to produce commercial quantities of seeds until it is 7–10 years old, but once established, it may continue bearing for over 100 years. Macadamias prefer fertile, well-drained soils, a rainfall of 1,000–2,000 mm (40–80 in), and temperatures not falling below 10 °C (50 °F) (although once established, they can withstand light frosts), with an optimum temperature of 25 °C (80 °F). The roots are shallow, and trees can be blown down in storms; like most Proteaceae, they are also susceptible to Phytophthora root disease. As of 2019, the macadamia nut is the most expensive nut in the world, which is attributed to the slow harvesting process. [16]

Macadamia 'Beaumont' in new growth Macadamia Beaumont.JPG
Macadamia 'Beaumont' in new growth

Cultivars

Beaumont

A Macadamia integrifolia / M. tetraphylla hybrid commercial variety is widely planted in Australia and New Zealand; Dr. J. H. Beaumont discovered it. It is high in oil but is not sweet. New leaves are reddish, and flowers are bright pink, borne on long racemes. It is one of the quickest varieties to come into bearing once planted in the garden, usually carrying a useful crop by the fourth year and improving from then on. It crops prodigiously when well pollinated. The impressive, grape-like clusters are sometimes so heavy they break the branchlets to which they are attached. Commercial orchards have reached 18 kg (40 lb) per tree by eight years old. On the downside, the macadamias do not drop from the tree when ripe, and the leaves are a bit prickly when one reaches into the tree's interior during harvest. Its shell is easier to open than that of most commercial varieties.

Macadamia 'Maroochy' new growth Macadamia Maroochy.JPG
Macadamia 'Maroochy' new growth

Maroochy

A pure M. tetraphylla variety from Australia, this strain is cultivated for its productive crop yield, flavour, and suitability for pollinating 'Beaumont.'

Nelmac II

A South African M. integrifolia / M. tetraphylla hybrid cultivar, it has a sweet seed, which means it has to be cooked carefully so that the sugars do not caramelise. The sweet seed is usually not fully processed, as it generally does not taste as good, but many people enjoy eating it uncooked. It has an open micropyle (hole in the shell), which may let in fungal spores. The crack-out percentage (ratio of nut meat to the whole nut by weight) is high. Ten-year-old trees average 22 kg (50 lb) per tree. It is a popular variety because of its pollination of 'Beaumont,' and the yields are almost comparable.

Renown

A M. integrifolia / M. tetraphylla hybrid, this is a rather spreading tree. On the plus side, it is high yielding commercially; 17 kg (37 lb) from a 9-year-old tree has been recorded, and the nuts drop to the ground. However, they are thick-shelled, with not much flavour.

Production

In 2024, South Africa was the leading producer of macadamia nuts, with 77,000 tonnes, [17] up from 54,000 tonnes out of global production of 211,000 tonnes in 2018. [18] Macadamia is commercially produced in many countries of Southeast Asia, South America, Australia, and North America having Mediterranean, temperate or tropical climates. [18]

History

The first commercial orchard of macadamia trees was planted in the early 1880s by Rous Mill, 12 km (7.5 mi) southeast of Lismore, New South Wales, consisting of M. tetraphylla . [19] Besides the development of a small boutique industry in Australia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, macadamia was extensively planted as a commercial crop in Hawaii from the 1920s onward. Macadamia seeds were first imported into Hawaii in 1882 by William H. Purvis, who planted seeds that year at Kapulena. [20] The Hawaiian-produced macadamia established the well-known seed internationally, and in 2017, Hawaii produced over 22,000 tonnes. [21]

In 2019, researchers collected samples from hundreds of trees in Queensland and compared their genetic profiles to samples from Hawaiian orchards. They determined that essentially all the Hawaiian trees must have descended from a small population of Australian trees from Gympie, possibly just a single tree. [22] This lack of genetic diversity in the commercial crop puts it at risk of succumbing to pathogens (as has happened in the past to banana cultivars). Growers may seek to diversify the cultivated population by hybridizing with wild specimens.

Shelling

Screw-type macadamia nut cracker on a plate of unshelled macadamias Macadamia cracking tool.jpg
Screw-type macadamia nut cracker on a plate of unshelled macadamias

Macadamias are the world's hardest edible nut to crack. [23] Since ordinary nutcrackers apply insufficient force, [24] various types of specialist macadamia nut crackers are available, many of which apply force to the micropyle (white dot) to fracture the shell. [23]

For commercial scale deshelling, rotating steel rollers are used. [24] In South Africa, the average crack-out rate, meaning ratio of usable nut to discarded shell, is 27.6% nut to 72.4% waste. [24]

Toxicity

Nuts from M. jansenii and M. ternifolia contain cyanogenic glycosides. [10] [11]

Allergen

Macadamia allergy is a type of food allergy to macadamia nuts which is relatively rare, affecting less than 5% of people with tree nut allergy in the United States. [25] Macadamia allergy can cause mild to severe allergic reactions, such as oral allergy syndrome, urticaria, angioedema, vomiting, abdominal pain, asthma, and anaphylaxis. [26] Macadamia allergy can also cross-react with other tree nuts or foods that have similar allergenic proteins, such as coconut, walnut, hazelnut, and cashew. [27] The diagnosis and management of macadamia allergy involves avoiding macadamia nuts and their derivatives, reading food labels carefully, carrying an epinephrine auto-injector in case of severe reactions, and consulting a doctor for further testing and advice.

Toxicity in dogs and cats

Macadamias are toxic to dogs. Ingestion may result in macadamia toxicity marked by weakness and hind limb paralysis with the inability to stand, occurring within 12 hours of ingestion. [28] It is not known what makes macadamia nuts toxic in dogs. [29] Depending on the quantity ingested and the size of the dog, symptoms may also include muscle tremors, joint pain, and severe abdominal pain. In high doses of toxin, opiate medication may be required for symptom relief until the toxic effects diminish, with full recovery usually within 24 to 48 hours. [28]

Macadamias are also toxic to cats, causing tremor, paralysis, stiffness in joints and high fever. [30]

Macadamia nuts, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 3,080 kJ (740 kcal)
13.8 g
Sugars 4.57 g
Dietary fiber 8.6 g
Fat
75.8 g
Saturated 12 g
Monounsaturated 59 g
Polyunsaturated 1.5 g
7.9 g
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
100%
1.195 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
12%
0.162 mg
Niacin (B3)
15%
2.473 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
15%
0.76 mg
Vitamin B6
16%
0.275 mg
Folate (B9)
3%
11 μg
Vitamin C
1%
1.2 mg
Vitamin E
4%
0.54 mg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
7%
85 mg
Iron
21%
3.69 mg
Magnesium
31%
130 mg
Manganese
178%
4.1 mg
Phosphorus
15%
188 mg
Potassium
12%
368 mg
Zinc
12%
1.30 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water1.4 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [31] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [32]

Uses

Nutrition

Raw macadamia nuts are 1% water, 14% carbohydrates, 76% fat, and 8% protein. A 100-gram reference amount of macadamia nuts provides 740 kilocalories and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value (DV)) of numerous essential nutrients, including thiamine (104% DV), vitamin B6 (21% DV), other B vitamins, manganese (195% DV), iron (28% DV), magnesium (37% DV) and phosphorus (27% DV).

Compared with other common edible nuts, such as almonds and cashews, macadamias are high in total fat and relatively low in protein. They have a high amount of monounsaturated fats (59% of total content) and contain, as 17% of total fat, the monounsaturated fat, omega-7 palmitoleic acid. [33]

Other uses

The trees are also grown as ornamental plants in subtropical regions for their glossy foliage and attractive flowers. The flowers produce a well-regarded honey. The wood is used decoratively for small items. [34] Macadamia species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including Batrachedra arenosella .[ citation needed ]

Macadamia seeds are often fed to hyacinth macaws in captivity. These large parrots are one of the few animals, aside from humans, capable of cracking the shell and removing the seed. [35]

Modern history

1828
Allan Cunningham was the first European to encounter the macadamia plant in Australia. [36]
1857–1858
German-Australian botanist Ferdinand von Mueller gave the genus the scientific name Macadamia. He named it after his friend John Macadam, a noted scientist and secretary of the Philosophical Institute of Australia. [37]
1858
'Bauple nuts' were discovered in Bauple, Queensland; they are now known as macadamia nuts.
Walter Hill, superintendent of the Brisbane Botanic Gardens (Australia), observed a boy eating the kernel without ill effect, becoming the first nonindigenous person recorded to eat macadamia nuts. [38]
1860s
King Jacky, aboriginal elder of the Logan River clan, south of Brisbane, Queensland, was the first known macadamia entrepreneur in his tribe and he regularly collected and traded the macadamias with settlers. [39]
1866
Tom Petrie planted macadamias at Yebri Creek (near Petrie) from nuts obtained from Aboriginals at Buderim. [40]
1882
William H. Purvis introduced macadamia nuts to Hawaii as a windbreak for sugar cane. [41]
1888
The first commercial orchard of macadamias was planted at Rous Mill, 12 km from Lismore, New South Wales, by Charles Staff. [42]
1889
Joseph Maiden, an Australian botanist, wrote, "It is well worth extensive cultivation, for the nuts are always eagerly bought." [43]
1910
The Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment Station encouraged the planting of macadamias on Hawaii's Kona District as a crop to supplement coffee production in the region. [44]
1916
Tom Petrie begins trial macadamia plantations in Maryborough, Queensland, combining macadamias with pecans to shelter the trees. [45]
1922
Ernest van Tassel formed the Hawaiian Macadamia Nut Co. in Hawaii. [46]
1925
Tassel leased 75 acres (30 ha) on Round Top in Honolulu and began Nutridge, Hawaii's first macadamia seed farm. [47]
1931
Tassel established a macadamia-processing factory on Puhukaina Street in Kakaako, Hawaii, selling the nuts as Van's Macadamia Nuts.
1937
Winston Jones and J. H. Beaumont of the University of Hawaii's Agricultural Experiment Station reported the first successful grafting of macadamias, paving the way for mass production. [48]
1946
A large plantation was established in Hawaii. [49] [50]
1953
Castle & Cooke added a new brand of macadamia nuts called "Royal Hawaiian," which was credited with popularizing the nuts in the U.S.
1991
A fourth macadamia species, Macadamia jansenii , was described, being first brought to the attention of plant scientists in 1983 by Ray Jansen, a sugarcane farmer and amateur botanist from South Kolan in Central Queensland. [51]
1997
Australia surpassed the United States as the major producer of macadamias. [44]
2012–2015
South Africa surpassed Australia as the largest producer of macadamias. [52] [3]
2014
The manner in which macadamia nuts were served on Korean Air Flight 86 from John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City led to a "nut rage incident", which gave the nuts high visibility in South Korea and marked a sharp increase in consumption there. [53] [54]

See also

Related Research Articles

Mount Bauple is a scientific national park in the Fraser Coast Region, Queensland, Australia, 190 km north of Brisbane.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nut (fruit)</span> Fruit with outer shell protecting kernel

In botany, a nut is a fruit from a tree consisting of a hard or tough nutshell protecting a kernel which is usually edible. The shell is indehiscent, meaning it does not open to release the seed. Most seeds come from fruits that naturally free themselves from the shell, but this is not the case in nuts such as hazelnuts, chestnuts, and acorns, which have hard shell walls and originate from a compound ovary.

<i>Hicksbeachia</i> Genus of flowering plants

Hicksbeachia is a genus of two species of trees in the family Proteaceae. They are native to rainforests of northern New South Wales and southeastern Queensland, Australia. They are commonly known as red bopple nut or beef nut due to the bright red colour of their fruits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Macadamia oil</span> Non-volatile oil expressed from the nut meat of the macadamia

Macadamia oil, also known as macadamia nut oil, is a non-volatile oil extracted from the nuts of the macadamia tree, indigenous to Australia. This oil is used in culinary applications as a frying or salad oil, and in cosmetics for its emollient properties and as a fragrance fixative.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proteaceae</span> Family of flowering plants

The Proteaceae form a family of flowering plants predominantly distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The family comprises 83 genera with about 1,660 known species. Australia and South Africa have the greatest concentrations of diversity. Together with the Platanaceae, Nelumbonaceae and in the recent APG IV system the Sabiaceae, they make up the order Proteales. Well-known Proteaceae genera include Protea, Banksia, Embothrium, Grevillea, Hakea, and Macadamia. Species such as the New South Wales waratah, king protea, and various species of Banksia, Grevillea, and Leucadendron are popular cut flowers. The nuts of Macadamia integrifolia are widely grown commercially and consumed, as are those of Gevuina avellana on a smaller scale.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grevilleoideae</span> Subfamily of plants in the family Proteaceae, mainly from the Southern Hemisphere

The Grevilleoideae are a subfamily of the plant family Proteaceae. Mainly restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, it contains around 46 genera and about 950 species. Genera include Banksia, Grevillea, and Macadamia.

<i>Kermadecia</i> Genus of plants in the family Proteaceae endemic to New Caledonia

Kermadecia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. The genus comprises eight species of rainforest trees from New Caledonia, Fiji, and Vanuatu. Its closest relative is Euplassa from South America.

<i>Macadamia tetraphylla</i> Species of tree in the family Proteaceae native to Queensland and New South Wales in Australia

Macadamia tetraphylla is a tree species in the family Proteaceae native to Australia. Common names include macadamia nut, bauple nut, prickly macadamia, Queensland nut, rough-shelled bush nut and rough-shelled Queensland nut.

<i>Eidothea hardeniana</i> Species of tree in the family Proteaceae

Eidothea hardeniana, commonly named nightcap oak, is a species of tree, up to 40 m (130 ft) tall, of the plant family Proteaceae, which botanist Robert Kooyman recognised as a new species only recently in 2002. It is found only in the Nightcap Range in northern New South Wales, Australia. The species has an official listing as critically endangered on the Australian Commonwealth EPBC Act and as Endangered on the NSW Threatened Species Act. The name hardeniana honours the botanist Gwen Harden. Phylogenetics studies now suggest it represents a basal branch of the Proteoid clade of the Proteaceae.

<i>Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia</i> Species of tree

Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia is a small tree in the family Proteaceae. Common names include red bopple nut, monkey nut, red nut, beef nut, rose nut and ivory silky oak.

<i>Virotia</i> Genus of plants in the family Proteaceae endemic to New Caledonia

Virotia is a genus of six species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. The genus is endemic to New Caledonia with six species that were once placed in Macadamia. Its closest relatives are the Australian Athertonia and the Asian Heliciopsis. The genus is named after Robert Virot, pioneer of ecological studies in New Caledonia and author of a monograph of New Caledonian Proteaceae.

<i>Nothorites</i> Monotypic genus of plants in the family Proteaceae

Nothorites is a monotypic genus in the macadamia family Proteaceae. The sole species, Nothorites megacarpus, is endemic to the wet tropics rain forests of northeastern Queensland, Australia.

<i>Lasjia</i> Genus of trees of the family Proteaceae

Lasjia is a genus of six species of trees of the family Proteaceae. Three species grow naturally in northeastern Queensland, Australia and three species in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Descriptively they are the tropical or northern macadamia trees group. Lasjia species characteristically branched compound inflorescences differentiate them from the Macadamia species, of Australia, which have characteristically unbranched compound inflorescences and only grow naturally about 1,000 km (620 mi) further to the south, in southern and central eastern Queensland and in northeastern New South Wales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">H2 Hinde Tree</span> Historic site in Queensland, Australia

The H2 Hinde Tree is a heritage-listed tree of the species Macadamia integrifolia at Colliston, 926 Gilston Road, Gilston, City of Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 14 August 2008.

<i>Macadamia jansenii</i> Species of tree in the family Proteaceae native to Queensland in Australia

Macadamia jansenii is an endangered and poisonous tree in the flowering plant family Proteaceae, native to Queensland in Australia. It was only described as a new species in 1991, being first brought to the attention of plant scientists in 1983 by Ray Jansen, a sugarcane farmer and amateur botanist from South Kolan in Central Queensland. Closely related to the cultivated and recently domesticated macadamia nut, it has small 11–16 mm diameter nuts that have a smooth, hard, brown shell enclosing a cream, globulose kernel that is bitter and inedible. In the wild it grows as a multi-stemmed 6–9m tall evergreen tree, with leaves having entire margins and generally in whorls of 3. An extremely rare species, it was discovered as a single population of around 60 plants in the wild in Eastern Australia. In 2018 about 60 new mature Macadamia jansenii trees were located, although a quarter of these were destroyed in the bush fires of 2019.

<i>Lasjia grandis</i> Species of plant in the Proteaceae family

Lasjia grandis, also known as the satin silky oak or Barong nut, is a species of forest tree in the protea family that is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, Australia. Its conservation status is considered to be Vulnerable under Queensland's Nature Conservation Act 1992.

<i>Lasjia whelanii</i> Species of plant in the family Proteaceae

Lasjia whelanii, also known as Whelan's silky oak, Whelan's nut oak or Whelan's macadamia, is a species of large forest tree in the protea family that is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, Australia.

Lasjia hildebrandii, also known as Celebes nut, Sulawesi nut, Sulawesi macadamia or Hildebrand's macadamia, is a species of forest tree in the protea family that is endemic to the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Its closest relative is Lasjia erecta, also a Sulawesi endemic.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 Mast, Austin R.; Willis, Crystal L.; Jones, Eric H.; Downs, Katherine M.; Weston, Peter H. (July 2008). "A smaller Macadamia from a more vagile tribe: inference of phylogenetic relationships, divergence times, and diaspore evolution in Macadamia and relatives (tribe Macadamieae; Proteaceae)". American Journal of Botany. 95 (#7): 843–870. doi:10.3732/ajb.0700006. ISSN   1537-2197. PMID   21632410.
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  4. ↑ "The Bopple Nut" (PDF). Bauple Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 August 2014. Retrieved 19 June 2014.
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  6. ↑ Shigeura, Gordon T.; Ooka, Hiroshi (April 1984). Macadamia nuts in Hawaii: History and production (PDF). Research extension series. University of Hawaii. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. ISSN   0271-9916. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
  7. ↑ "Australian plants can be new food crops for sustainable agricultural systems". 8 February 2024.
  8. ↑ Schüler, Paul; Speck, Thomas; Bührig-Polaczek, Andreas; Fleck, Claudia; Buehler, Markus J. (7 August 2014). "Structure-Function Relationships in Macadamia integrifolia Seed Coats – Fundamentals of the Hierarchical Microstructure". PLOS ONE. 9 (#8): e102913. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j2913S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102913 . PMC   4125148 . PMID   25102155.
  9. ↑ Jennings, J. S.; Macmillan, N. H. (May 1986). "A tough nut to crack". Journal of Materials Science. 21 (#5): 1517–1524. Bibcode:1986JMatS..21.1517J. doi:10.1007/BF01114704. S2CID   136850984.
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  13. ↑ "Macadamia hildebrandii - Steenis". Plants for a Future. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
  14. ↑ Akhbar; Nuryanti S.; Naharuddin (2020). "Spatial distribution and habitat characteristics of Macadamia hildebrandii in the Sintuwu Maroso Protection Forest, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia". Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity. 20 (#2). doi: 10.13057/biodiv/d210245 . Retrieved 18 February 2021.
  15. ↑ The proceedings of Philosophical Institute of Victoria, now the Royal Society of Victoria Rev: Mueller F (1857) Account of some new Australian plants. Transactions of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria 2: 62–77; Burke & Wills: The Scientific Legacy of the Victorian Exploring Expedition by E B Joyce & D A McCann, Royal Society of Victoria 2011
  16. ↑ Kim, Irene Anna (6 March 2019). "What makes macadamia nuts the most expensive nuts in the world, at $25 per pound". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 26 August 2019. Retrieved 8 July 2020.
  17. ↑ Brederode, William. "SA is world's biggest macadamia producer - why it now has to start cracking nuts to survive". Business. Retrieved 25 December 2024.
  18. 1 2 Motaung, Ntswaki (30 May 2018). "More and more macadamia produced globally". Agriorbit. Archived from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2019.
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  20. ↑ Schmitt, Robert. "Macadamia Nuts". Hawaiian Historical Society. Archived from the original on 16 February 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
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  22. ↑ Imbler, Sabrina (3 June 2019). "70 Percent of the World's Macadamia Nuts Came From One Tree in Australia". Atlas Obscura. Archived from the original on 7 June 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  23. 1 2 https://www.australian-macadamias.org/grow/how-to-crack-a-macadamia-nut/
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  50. ↑ Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Packaging
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