Cashew

Last updated

Cashew
Cashew apples.jpg
Ripe fruit and attached drupe, which contains the edible seed
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Anacardiaceae
Genus: Anacardium
Species:
A. occidentale
Binomial name
Anacardium occidentale
L.

Cashew is the common name of a tropical evergreen tree Anacardium occidentale, in the family Anacardiaceae. It is native to South America and is the source of the cashew nut and the cashew apple, an accessory fruit. The tree can grow as tall as 14 metres (46 feet), but the dwarf cultivars, growing up to 6 m (20 ft), prove more profitable, with earlier maturity and greater yields. The cashew nut is edible and is eaten on its own as a snack, used in recipes, or processed into cashew cheese or cashew butter. The nut is often simply called a 'cashew'.

Contents

In 2019, four million tonnes of cashew nuts were produced globally, with Ivory Coast and India the leading producers. As well as the nut and fruit, the plant has several other uses. The shell of the cashew seed yields derivatives that can be used in many applications including lubricants, waterproofing, paints, and, starting in World War II, arms production. [1] [ full citation needed ] The cashew apple is a light reddish to yellow fruit, whose pulp and juice can be processed into a sweet, astringent fruit drink or fermented and distilled into liquor.

Description

The cashew tree is large and evergreen, growing to 14 metres (46 feet) tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk. [2] The leaves are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, 4–22 centimetres (1+1⁄2–8+3⁄4 inches) long and 2–15 cm (3⁄4–6 in) broad, with smooth margins. The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to 26 cm (10 in) long; each flower is small, pale green at first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals 7–15 millimetres (1⁄4–5⁄8 in) long. The largest cashew tree in the world covers an area around 7,500 m2 (81,000 sq ft) and is located in Natal, Brazil.[ citation needed ]

The fruit of the cashew tree is an accessory fruit (sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit). [3] [4] What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a hypocarpium, that develops from the pedicel and the receptacle of the cashew flower. [5] [6] [2] Called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as marañón, it ripens into a yellow or red structure about 5–11 cm (2–4+1⁄4 in) long. [3] [6]

The true fruit of the cashew tree is a kidney-shaped or boxing glove-shaped drupe that grows at the end of the cashew apple. [3] The drupe first develops on the tree and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple. [3] The drupe becomes the true fruit, a single shell-encased seed, which is often considered a nut in the culinary sense. [3] [6] [7] The seed is surrounded by a double shell that contains an allergenic phenolic resin, [6] anacardic acid—which is a potent skin irritant [2] chemically related to the better-known and also toxic allergenic oil urushiol, which is found in the related poison ivy and lacquer tree.

Etymology

The English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree: caju (Portuguese pronunciation: [kaˈʒu] ), also known as acaju , which itself is from the Tupi word acajú, literally meaning "nut that produces itself". [3] [4]

The generic name Anacardium is composed of the Greek prefix ana- ( ἀνά- , aná, 'up, upward'), the Greek cardia (καρδία, kardía, 'heart'), and the Neo-Latin suffix -ium . It possibly refers to the heart shape of the fruit, [8] to "the top of the fruit stem" [9] or to the seed. [10] The word anacardium was earlier used to refer to Semecarpus anacardium (the marking nut tree) before Carl Linnaeus transferred it to the cashew; both plants are in the same family. [11] The epithet occidentale derives from the Western (or Occidental) world. [12]

The plant has diverse common names in various languages among its wide distribution range, [4] including anacardier (French) with the fruit referred to as pomme de cajou, [13] caju (Portuguese pronunciation: [kaˈʒu] ), or acaju (Portuguese). [3] [4]

Distribution and habitat

The species is native to tropical South America [14] and later was distributed around the world in the 1500s by Portuguese explorers. [3] [15] [6] Portuguese colonists in Brazil began exporting cashew nuts as early as the 1550s. [16] The Portuguese took it to Goa, formerly Estado da Índia Portuguesa in India, between 1560 and 1565. From there, it spread throughout Southeast Asia and eventually Africa.[ citation needed ]

Cultivation

Cashew production
(with shell) 2021
CountryProduction
(tonnes)
Flag of Cote d'Ivoire.svg  Côte d'Ivoire 837,850
Flag of India.svg  India 738,000
Flag of Vietnam.svg  Vietnam 348,504
Flag of the Philippines.svg  Philippines 255,931
Flag of Tanzania.svg  Tanzania 210,786
World3,708,153
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations [17]

The cashew tree is cultivated in the tropics between 25°N and 25°S, and is well-adapted to hot lowland areas with a pronounced dry season, where the mango and tamarind trees also thrive. [18] The traditional cashew tree is tall (up to 14 m (46 ft)) and takes three years from planting before it starts production, and eight years before economic harvests can begin. [19]

More recent breeds, such as the dwarf cashew trees, are up to 6 m (20 ft) tall and start producing after the first year, with economic yields after three years. The cashew nut yields for the traditional tree are about 0.25 t/ha (0.100 long ton/acre; 0.11 short ton/acre), in contrast to over a ton per hectare for the dwarf variety. Grafting and other modern tree management technologies are used to further improve and sustain cashew nut yields in commercial orchards. [20] [19]

Production

In 2021, global production of cashew nuts (as the kernel) was 3.7 million tonnes, led by Ivory Coast and India with a combined 43% of the world total (table).

Trade

The top ten exporters of cashew nuts (in-shell; HS Code 080131) in value (USD) in 2021 were Ghana, Tanzania, Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Indonesia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Guinea.

Top Cashew Nut (in-shell) Exporters, 2017–2021 (USD)
20172018201920202021
World2.8B2.8B1.9B2.0B1.3B
Ghana253.2M455.7M222.6M340.7M172.7M
Tanzania530.0M426.8M221.4M362.0M159.0M
Guinea-Bissau318.0M129.0M122.8M128.5M143.6M
Nigeria69.3M191.1M74.5M94.4M138.8M
Ivory Coast1.0B1.1B730.8M612.0M129.7M
Burkina Faso144.8M198.9M81.0M53.3M96.0M
Senegal3.4M33.2M60.5M38.6M92.3M
Indonesia112.7M84.4M121.0M102.4M70.7M
UAE103.1K74.5M586.3K3.4M55.2M
Guinea161.6M41.2M45.2M35.7M53.1M
Source: [21]

From 2017 to 2021, the top ten exporters of cashew nuts (shelled; HS Code 080132) were Vietnam, India, the Netherlands, Germany, Brazil, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Indonesia, Burkina Faso, and the United States.

In 2014, the rapid growth of cashew cultivation in the Ivory Coast made this country the top African exporter. [22] Fluctuations in world market prices, poor working conditions, and low pay for local harvesting have caused discontent in the cashew nut industry. [23] [24] [25] Almost all cashews produced in Africa between 2000 and 2019 were exported as raw nuts which are much less profitable than shelled nuts. [26] One of the goals of the African Cashew Alliance is to promote Africa's cashew processing capabilities to improve the profitability of Africa's cashew industry. [27]

In 2011, Human Rights Watch reported that forced labour was used for cashew processing in Vietnam. Around 40,000 current or former drug users were forced to remove shells from "blood cashews" or perform other work and often beaten at more than 100 rehabilitation centers. [28] [29]

Top Cashew Nut (shelled) Exporters, 2017–2021 (USD)
20172018201920202021
World5.5B5.1B4.7B4.5B4.2B
Vietnam3.4B3.2B3.0B2.9B2.7B
India959.9M673.6M569.6M407.9M437.8M
Netherlands302.8M304.3M248.3M266.0M281.8M
Germany168.1M179.8M174.5M202.3M183.2M
Brazil114.2M117.0M121.3M91.0M96.8M
Ivory Coast73.2M97.1M68.4M110.4M81.8M
Nigeria12.0M20.2M37.3M20.1M45.0M
Indonesia60.2M55.6M57.0M45.7M40.7M
Burkina Faso12.1M13.8M18.9M16.3M21.6M
United States33.5M26.3M22.7M21.1M19.8M
Source: [30]

Toxicity

Some people are allergic to cashews, but they are a less frequent allergen than other tree nuts or peanuts. [31] For up to 6% of children and 3% of adults, consuming cashews may cause allergic reactions, ranging from mild discomfort to life-threatening anaphylaxis. [32] [33] [34] [35] These allergies are triggered by the proteins found in tree nuts, and cooking often does not remove or change these proteins. [36] Reactions to cashew and tree nuts can also occur as a consequence of hidden nut ingredients or traces of nuts that may inadvertently be introduced during food processing, handling, or manufacturing. [33] [34]

The shell of the cashew nut contains oil compounds that can cause contact dermatitis similar to poison ivy, primarily resulting from the phenolic lipids, anacardic acid, and cardanol. [6] [37] Because it can cause dermatitis, cashews are typically not sold in the shell to consumers. [38] Readily and inexpensively extracted from the waste shells, cardanol is under research for its potential applications in nanomaterials and biotechnology. [39]

Uses

Nutrition

Cashews, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 553 kcal (2,310 kJ)
30.19 g
Starch 23.49 g
Sugars 5.91 g
0.00 g
Dietary fiber 3.3 g
Fat
43.85 g
Saturated 7.783 g
Monounsaturated 23.797 g
Polyunsaturated 7.845 g
18.22 g
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Vitamin A 0 IU
Thiamine (B1)
35%
0.423 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
4%
0.058 mg
Niacin (B3)
7%
1.062 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
17%
0.86 mg
Vitamin B6
25%
0.417 mg
Folate (B9)
6%
25 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Vitamin C
1%
0.5 mg
Vitamin D
0%
0 μg
Vitamin E
6%
0.90 mg
Vitamin K
28%
34.1 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
3%
37 mg
Copper
244%
2.2 mg
Iron
37%
6.68 mg
Magnesium
70%
292 mg
Manganese
72%
1.66 mg
Phosphorus
47%
593 mg
Potassium
22%
660 mg
Selenium
36%
19.9 μg
Zinc
53%
5.78 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water5.20 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [40] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [41]

Raw cashews are 5% water, 30%  carbohydrates, 44%  fat, and 18%  protein (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, raw cashews provide 553  kilocalories, 67% of the Daily Value (DV) in total fats, 36% DV of protein, 13% DV of dietary fiber and 11% DV of carbohydrates. [42] Cashews are rich sources (20% or more of the DV) of dietary minerals, including particularly copper, manganese, phosphorus, and magnesium (79–110% DV), and of thiamin, vitamin B6 and vitamin K (32–37% DV). [42] Iron, potassium, zinc, and selenium are present in significant content (14–61% DV) (table). [42] Cashews (100 g, raw) contain 113 milligrams (1.74 gr) of beta-sitosterol. [42]

Nut and shell

Culinary uses for cashew seeds in snacking and cooking are similar to those for all tree seeds called nuts. [3] [6]

Cashews are commonly used in South Asian cuisine, whole for garnishing sweets or curries, or ground into a paste [6] that forms a base of sauces for curries (e.g., korma ), or some sweets (e.g., kaju barfi ). It is also used in powdered form in the preparation of several Indian sweets and desserts. In Goan cuisine, both roasted and raw kernels of Goa Kaju are used whole for making curries and sweets. Cashews are also used in Thai and Chinese cuisines, generally in whole form. In the Philippines, cashew is a known product of Antipolo and is eaten with suman. The province of Pampanga also has a sweet dessert called turrones de casuy, which is cashew marzipan wrapped in white wafers. In Indonesia, roasted and salted cashews are called kacang mete or kacang mede, while the cashew apple is called jambu monyet (lit. 'monkey rose apple').[ citation needed ]

In the 21st century, cashew cultivation increased in several African countries to meet the manufacturing demands for cashew milk, a plant milk alternative to dairy milk. [43] In Mozambique, bolo polana is a cake prepared using powdered cashews and mashed potatoes as the main ingredients. This dessert is common in South Africa. [44]

Husk

The cashew nut kernel has a slight curvature and two cotyledons, each representing around 20–25% of the weight of the nut. It is encased in a reddish-brown membrane called a husk, which accounts for approximately 5% of the total nut. Cashew nut husk is used in emerging industrial applications, such as an adsorbent, composites, biopolymers, dyes and enzyme synthesis. [45]

Apple

The mature cashew apple can be eaten fresh, cooked in curries, or fermented into vinegar, citric acid [46] or an alcoholic drink. [6] It is also used to make preserves, chutneys, and jams in some countries, such as India and Brazil. [6] In many countries, particularly in South America, the cashew apple is used to flavor drinks, both alcoholic and nonalcoholic. [3] [2]

In Brazil, cashew fruit juice and fruit pulp are used in the production of sweets, and juice mixed with alcoholic beverages such as cachaça , and as flour, milk, or cheese. [47] In Panama, the cashew fruit is cooked with water and sugar for a prolonged time to make a sweet, brown, paste-like dessert called dulce de marañón (marañón being a Spanish name for cashew). [48]

Cashew nuts are more widely traded than cashew apples, because the fruit, unlike the nut, is easily bruised and has a very limited shelf life. [49] Cashew apple juice, however, may be used for manufacturing blended juices. [49]

When the apple is consumed, its astringency is sometimes removed by steaming the fruit for five minutes before washing it in cold water. Steeping the fruit in boiling salt water for five minutes also reduces the astringency. [50]

In Cambodia, where the plant is usually grown as an ornamental rather than an economic tree, the fruit is a delicacy and is eaten with salt. [13]

Alcohol

In the Indian state of Goa, the ripened cashew apples are mashed, and the juice, called "neero", is extracted and kept for fermentation [6] for a few days. This fermented juice then undergoes a double distillation process. The resulting beverage is called feni or fenny. Feni is about 40–42% alcohol (80–84 proof). The single-distilled version is called urrak , which is about 15% alcohol (30 proof). [51] In Tanzania, the cashew apple (bibo in Swahili) is dried and reconstituted with water and fermented, then distilled to make a strong liquor called gongo. [52]

Nut oil

Cashew nut oil is a dark yellow oil derived from pressing the cashew nuts (typically from lower-value broken chunks created accidentally during processing) and is used for cooking or as a salad dressing. The highest quality oil is produced from a single cold pressing. [53]

Shell oil

Cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) or cashew shell oil (CAS registry number 8007-24-7) is a natural resin with a yellowish sheen found in the honeycomb structure of the cashew nutshell, and is a byproduct of processing cashew nuts. As it is a strong irritant, it should not be confused with edible cashew nut oil. It is dangerous to handle in small-scale processing of the shells, but is itself a raw material with multiple uses. [39] It is used in tropical folk medicine and for anti-termite treatment of timber. [54] Its composition varies depending on how it is processed.

These substances are skin allergens, like lacquer and the oils of poison ivy, and they present a danger during manual cashew processing. [54]

This natural oil phenol has interesting chemical structural features that can be modified to create a wide spectrum of biobased monomers. These capitalize on the chemically versatile construct, which contains three functional groups: the aromatic ring, the hydroxyl group, and the double bonds in the flanking alkyl chain. These include polyols, which have recently seen increased demand for their biobased origin and key chemical attributes such as high reactivity, range of functionalities, reduction in blowing agents, and naturally occurring fire retardant properties in the field of rigid polyurethanes, aided by their inherent phenolic structure and larger number of reactive units per unit mass. [39]

CNSL may be used as a resin for carbon composite products. [57] CNSL-based novolac is another versatile industrial monomer deriving from cardanol typically used as a reticulating agent (hardener) for epoxy matrices in composite applications [58] providing good thermal and mechanical properties to the final composite material. [59]

Animal feed

Discarded cashew nuts unfit for human consumption, alongside the residues of oil extraction from cashew kernels, can be fed to livestock. Animals can also eat the leaves of cashew trees. [60]

Other uses

As well as the nut and fruit, the plant has several other uses. In Cambodia, the bark gives a yellow dye, the timber is used in boat-making, and for house-boards, and the wood makes excellent charcoal. [13] The shells yield a black oil used as a preservative and water-proofing agent in varnishes, cement, and as a lubricant or timber seal. [6] Timber is used to manufacture furniture, boats, packing crates, and charcoal. [6] Its juice turns black on exposure to air, providing an indelible ink. [6]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Almond</span> Species of nut

The almond is a species of tree from the genus Prunus. Along with the peach, it is classified in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell (endocarp) surrounding the seed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pistachio</span> Member of the cashew family

The pistachio, a member of the cashew family, is a small to medium tree originating in Persia. The tree produces seeds that are widely consumed as food. The word can be countable or uncountable, meaning its plural is with or without an 's'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunflower seed</span> Seed of the sunflower (Helianthus annuus)

A sunflower seed is a seed from a sunflower. There are three types of commonly used sunflower seeds: linoleic, high oleic, and sunflower oil seeds. Each variety has its own unique levels of monounsaturated, saturated, and polyunsaturated fats. The information in this article refers mainly to the linoleic variety.

<i>Anacardium</i> Genus of flowering plants

Anacardium, the cashews, are a genus of flowering plants in the family Anacardiaceae, native to tropical regions of the Americas. The best known species is Anacardium occidentale, which is commercially cultivated for its cashew nuts and cashew apples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Accessory fruit</span> Botanical category of fruit

An accessory fruit is a fruit that contains tissue derived from plant parts other than the ovary. In other words, the flesh of the fruit develops not from the floral ovary, but from some adjacent tissue exterior to the carpel. As a general rule, the accessory fruit is a combination of several floral organs, including the ovary. In contrast, true fruit forms exclusively from the ovary of the flower.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nut (fruit)</span> In botany, type of dry indehiscent fruit

A nut is a fruit consisting of a hard or tough nutshell protecting a kernel which is usually edible. In general usage and in a culinary sense, many dry seeds are called nuts. In a botanical context, "nut" implies that the shell does not open to release the seed (indehiscent).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hazelnut</span> Nut of the hazel tree

The hazelnut is the fruit of the hazel tree and therefore includes any of the nuts deriving from species of the genus Corylus, especially the nuts of the species Corylus avellana. They are also known as cobnuts or filberts according to species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brazil nut</span> Species of flowering plant in the family Lecythidaceae

The Brazil nut is a South American tree in the family Lecythidaceae, and it is also the name of the tree's commercially harvested edible seeds. It is one of the largest and longest-lived trees in the Amazon rainforest. The fruit and its nutshell – containing the edible Brazil nut – are relatively large and weigh as much as 2 kg (4.4 lb) in total. As food, Brazil nuts are notable for diverse content of micronutrients, especially a high amount of selenium. The wood of the Brazil nut tree is prized for its quality in carpentry, flooring, and heavy construction.

<i>Macadamia</i> Genus of plants indigenous to Australia

Macadamia is a genus of four species of trees in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. They are indigenous to Australia, native to northeastern New South Wales and central and southeastern Queensland specifically. Two species of the genus are commercially important for their fruit, the macadamia nut. Global production in 2015 was 160,000 tonnes. Other names include Queensland nut, bush nut, maroochi nut, bauple nut and, in the US, they are also known as Hawaii nut. It was an important source of bushfood for the Aboriginal peoples.

<i>Juglans nigra</i> Species of tree

Juglans nigra, the eastern American black walnut, is a species of deciduous tree in the walnut family, Juglandaceae, native to North America. It grows mostly in riparian zones, from southern Ontario, west to southeast South Dakota, south to Georgia, northern Florida and southwest to central Texas. Wild trees in the upper Ottawa Valley may be an isolated native population or may have derived from planted trees.

<i>Juglans regia</i> Species of tree (walnut)

Juglans regia, the Persian walnut, English walnut, Carpathian walnut, Madeira walnut, or, especially in Great Britain, common walnut, is an Old World walnut tree species native to the region stretching from the Caucasus eastward to the Kashmir region. It is widely cultivated across Eurasia and Northern America.

<i>Syzygium malaccense</i> Species of plant

Syzygium malaccense is a species of flowering tree native to tropical Asia and Australia. It is one of the species cultivated since prehistoric times by the Austronesian peoples. They were carried and introduced deliberately to Remote Oceania as canoe plants. In modern times, it has been introduced throughout the tropics, including many Caribbean countries and territories.

<i>Anacardium excelsum</i> Species of tree

Anacardium excelsum, the wild cashew or espavé, is a tree in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The tree is common in the tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests of Pacific and Atlantic watersheds of Central and South America, extending as far north as Guatemala and south into Ecuador.

<i>Semecarpus anacardium</i> Species of tree

Semecarpus anacardium, commonly known as the marking nut tree, Malacca bean tree, marany nut, oriental cashew, dhobi nut tree and varnish tree, is a native of India, found in the outer Himalayas to the Coromandel Coast. It is closely related to the cashew.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anacardic acids</span> Chemical compound

Anacardic acids are phenolic lipids, chemical compounds found in the shell of the cashew nut. An acid form of urushiol, they also cause an allergic skin rash on contact, known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis. Anacardic acid is a yellow liquid. It is partially miscible with ethanol and ether, but nearly immiscible with water. Chemically, anacardic acid is a mixture of several closely related organic compounds. Each consists of a salicylic acid substituted with an alkyl chain that has 15 or 17 carbon atoms. The alkyl group may be saturated or unsaturated; anacardic acid is a mixture of saturated and unsaturated molecules. The exact mixture depends on the species of the plant. The 15-carbon unsaturated side chain compound found in the cashew plant is lethal to Gram-positive bacteria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardanol</span> Phenolic lipid

Cardanol is a phenolic lipid obtained from anacardic acid, the main component of cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL), a byproduct of cashew nut processing. Cardanol finds use in the chemical industry in resins, coatings, frictional materials, and surfactants used as pigment dispersants for water-based inks. It is used to make phenalkamines, which are used as curing agents for the durable epoxy coatings used on concrete floors. The name of the substance is derived by contraction from the genus Anacardium, which includes the cashew tree, Anacardium occidentale. The name of the genus itself is based on the Greek word for heart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sanoor</span> Place in Karnataka, India

Sanoor is a village in the southern state of Karnataka, India. During the British Raj, the village was headed by the Patels (Patler). Since independence, it has been administered by a mandala Panchayati raj. The nearest court is in Karkala, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from the village center. Sanoor has several primary schools and a government pre-university college. The Tulu language is widely spoken; other languages spoken in the village are Konkani and Kannada. The Bunt and Billava were early ethnic communities, with the Marathi, Konkani and Brahmins arriving later. With Portuguese settlement, villagers converted to Catholicism. Local Muslims belong to the Moplah community, are known as Beary and speak the Beary dialect of Tulu. The Beary, living in the region for over a thousand years, may be descended from Arab traders.

Anacardium othonianum is a tree native from the tropical savanna (cerrado) region of Brazil, whose fruit is similar to that of the common cashew tree of the Brazilian Northeast. It is locally known by the Tupi-derived name cajuí, and by the Portuguese names caju-de-árvore-do-cerrado, caju-vermelho-de-goiás, cajuzinho-do-cerrado or just cajuzinho.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cashew business in Kollam</span> Aspect of agriculture in the Indian city

The Cashew business in Kollam is based in the eponymous city, which is known as the Cashew Capital of the World. Kollam is the largest processed cashew exporter in the world. As of 2011 there were more than 600 cashew processing units in the city. About 800,000 tonnes of raw cashews are imported to the city for processing every year. 80% of India's export quality cashew kernels were prepared in Kollam. Kollam has remained the cashew capital of the world since the 1930s.

References

  1. ↑ Jostock, "Cashew Industry", p. 5.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Cashew". Encyclopedia Britannica. 7 April 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Morton, Julia F. (1987). Cashew apple, Anacardium occidentale L.; In: Fruits of Warm Climates. Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, Indiana. pp. 239–240. ISBN   978-0-9610184-1-2. Archived from the original on 15 March 2007. Retrieved 18 March 2007.
  4. 1 2 3 4 "Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut)". CABI. 20 November 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
  5. ↑ Varghese, T.; Pundir, Y. (1964). "Anatomy of the pseudocarp in Anacardium occidentale L.". Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section B. 59 (5): 252–258. doi:10.1007/BF03052341. S2CID   83230755.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 James A Duke (1983). "Anacardium occidentale L." Handbook of Energy Crops. (unpublished); In: NewCROP, New Crop Resource Online Program, Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Purdue University. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
  7. ↑ Kapinga, F. A.; Kasuga, L. J. F.; Kafiriti, E. M. "Growth and production of cashew nut" (PDF). Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  8. ↑ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2016). World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants. CRC. p. 266. ISBN   978-1-4822-5064-0. referring to the shape of the fruit
  9. ↑ Merriam-Webster: "from the heartlike shape of the top of the fruit stem"
  10. ↑ George Milbry Gould (1898). An Illustrated Dictionary of Medicine, Biology and Allied Sciences: Including the Pronunciation, Accentuation, Derivation, and Definition of the Terms Used in Medicine, Anatomy, Surgery ... P. Blakiston. p. 73. ἀνά, up; καρδία, the heart, from its heart-shaped seeds
  11. ↑ Hugh F. Glen (2004). What's in a Name. Jacana. p. 3. ISBN   978-1-77009-040-8. (Greek ana = upwards + kardia = heart); applied by 16th-century apothecaries to the fruit of the marking nut, Semecarpus anacardium, and later used by Linnaeus as a generic name for the cashew.
  12. ↑ "Occidental". The Free Dictionary. 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  13. 1 2 3 Pauline Dy Phon (2000). Plants Utilised In Cambodia/Plantes utilisées au Cambodge. Phnom Penh: Imprimerie Olympic. p. 34.
  14. ↑ "Anacardium occidentale L." Plants of the Word Online. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  15. ↑ "Cashew". Department of Horticulture, Cornell University. 20 October 2015. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
  16. ↑ Carolyn Joystick, "Cashew Industry" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 2, p. 5. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
  17. ↑ "Cashew production in 2021; pick lists from world regions/production quantity". FAOSTAT of the UN. 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  18. ↑ "Cultivating Cashew Nuts". ARC-Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops, South Africa. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  19. 1 2 Ian Duncan. "Growers Manual for Production of Cashew | Nursery and Plantation" (PDF). Nicaragua Agriculture Reconstruction Assistance Program. Managua, Nicaragua: United States Agency for International Development.
  20. ↑ Desai A.R.; S.P. Singh; J.R. Faleiro; M. Thangam; S. Priya Devi; S.A. Safeena; N.P. Singh (2010). "Techniques And Practices For Cashew Production" (PDF). Technical Bulletin No. 21. Ela, Old Goa- 403402, Goa, India: ICAR Research Complex for Goa.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  21. ↑ "2022 Raw Cashew Nut global market overview today". Tridge.
  22. ↑ Bavier, Joe (29 October 2014). "War-scarred Ivory Coast aims to conquer the world of cashews". Reuters . Archived from the original on 23 January 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
  23. ↑ "Tanzania riots over cashew nut payments". BBC. 24 April 2013. Archived from the original on 21 May 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
  24. ↑ Lamble L. (2 November 2013). "Cashew nut workers suffer 'appalling' conditions as global slump dents profits". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
  25. ↑ Wilson B. (4 May 2015). "'Blood cashews': the toxic truth about your favourite nut". The Telegraph. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
  26. ↑ Nelle, Patrick (28 February 2022). "Can Africa cash in on its cashew nut domination?". How we made it in Africa. Retrieved 27 November 2023.
  27. ↑ "ACA seeks creation of cashew development fund to enhance raw nuts processing in Africa". The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News. 29 September 2023. Retrieved 27 November 2023.
  28. ↑ Marshall, Andrew (6 September 2011). "From Vietnam's Forced-Labor Camps: 'Blood Cashews'". time.com.
  29. ↑ "The Rehab Archipelago | Forced Labor and Other Abuses in Drug Detention Centers in Southern Vietnam". Human Rights Watch. 7 September 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  30. ↑ "2022 Cashew Nut Kernel global market overview today". Tridge.
  31. ↑ Rosen, T.; Fordice, D. B. (April 1994). "Cashew Nut Dermatitis". Southern Medical Journal. 87 (4): 543–546. doi:10.1097/00007611-199404000-00026. PMID   8153790.
  32. ↑ Weinberger, Tamar; Sicherer, Scott (2018). "Current perspectives on tree nut allergy: a review". Journal of Asthma and Allergy. 11: 41–51. doi: 10.2147/jaa.s141636 . ISSN   1178-6965. PMC   5875412 . PMID   29618933.
  33. 1 2 McWilliam V.; Koplin J.; Lodge C.; Tang M.; Dharmage S.; Allen K. (2015). "The prevalence of tree nut allergy: a systematic review". Current Allergy and Asthma Reports. 15 (9): 555. doi:10.1007/s11882-015-0555-8. PMID   26233427. S2CID   36209553.
  34. 1 2 "Cashew Allergies". Informall Database – funded by European Union. 2010. Archived from the original on 29 October 2010.
  35. ↑ "Food allergies" (PDF). World Health Organization, International Food Safety Authorities Network. 2006.
  36. ↑ "Cashew - allergy information (InformAll: Communicating about Food Allergies - University of Manchester)". research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
  37. ↑ Rosen T.; Fordice, D. B. (1994). "Cashew nut dermatitis". South Med J. 87 (4): 543–46. doi:10.1097/00007611-199404000-00026. PMID   8153790.
  38. ↑ "Why Cashews Aren't Sold In The Shell". Moment of Science, Indiana Public Media. 6 September 2013. Archived from the original on 20 February 2016. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
  39. 1 2 3 4 Hamad F. B.; Mubofu E. B. (2015). "Potential biological applications of bio-based anacardic acids and their derivatives". Int J Mol Sci. 16 (4): 8569–90. doi: 10.3390/ijms16048569 . PMC   4425097 . PMID   25894225.
  40. ↑ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  41. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
  42. 1 2 3 4 "Full Report (All Nutrients): 12087, Nuts, cashew nuts, raw, database version SR 27". Agricultural Research Service – United States Department of Agriculture. 2015. Archived from the original on 18 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
  43. ↑ Osborn M (26 August 2015). "Access to Market Data and Supply Chain Visibility offer Economic Boost to Ghana Cashew Farmers". Consumer Goods Technology. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  44. ↑ Phillippa Cheifitz (2009). South Africa Eats. Quivertree Publications. ISBN   9780981428727. OCLC   519442115.
  45. ↑ Khalid Zafeer, Mohd.; Subrahmanya Bhat, K. (1 January 2023). "Valorisation of agro-waste cashew nut husk (Testa) for different value-added products". Sustainable Chemistry for Climate Action. 2: 100014. Bibcode:2023SCCA....200014K. doi: 10.1016/j.scca.2023.100014 . ISSN   2772-8269.
  46. ↑ Africa, Nigeria (17 July 2022). "How Nigeria can turn its huge cashew waste into valuable citric acid". Moneyweb. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  47. ↑ Edi Souza (28 July 2018). "It's cashew time at the fair and on the plate (translated)" (in Portuguese). Folha de Pernambuco. Archived from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
  48. ↑ O, Odalys (15 October 2011). "Dulces de mi campiña, Panamá: Dulce de Marañón". Dulces de mi campiña, Panamá. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
  49. 1 2 Strom, Stephanie (8 August 2014). "Cashew Juice, the Apple of Pepsi's Eye". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 24 November 2015.
  50. ↑ Azam-Ali and Judge (2004). Small-scale cashew nut processing (PDF). FAO, United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
  51. ↑ "Cashew Drink Stages". www.goaonline.in. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  52. ↑ "Eating in Tanzania". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 15 August 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  53. ↑ "Cashew Oil". Smart Kitchen. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  54. 1 2 Clay, Jason (March 2004). World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-By-Commodity Guide To Impacts And Practices. Island Press. p. 268. ISBN   978-1-55963-370-3.
  55. 1 2 Alexander H. Tullo (8 September 2008). "A Nutty Chemical". Chemical and Engineering News . 86 (36): 26–27. doi:10.1021/cen-v086n033.p026.
  56. 1 2 3 "Exposure and Use Data for Cashew Nut Shell Liquid" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  57. ↑ Ferri, Enrico (22 May 2011). "Bioresins Derived from Cashew Nutshell Oil". MaterialsToday. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
  58. ↑ da Silva, Kássia Teixeira; Oliveira, Beatriz S.; da Silva, Lucas R. R.; Mattos, Adriano L. A.; Mazzetto, Selma E.; Lomonaco, Diego (27 January 2023). "<scp>Bio-based</scp> novolac resins from cashew nut processing waste: Alternative resource for the development of <scp>high-value</scp> sustainable products". Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 140 (13). doi:10.1002/app.53661. ISSN   0021-8995.
  59. ↑ Ferri, Enrico; Talentino, Debi (May 2011). "Bio-resins from cashew nutshell oil". Reinforced Plastics. 55 (3): 29–31. doi:10.1016/s0034-3617(11)70074-1. ISSN   0034-3617.
  60. ↑ Heuzé, V.; Tran, G.; Hassoun, P.; Bastianelli, D.; Lebas, F. (2017). "Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) nuts and by-products". Feedipedia. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.