Wikipedia

Yamuna

For other uses, see Yamuna (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Jamuna River (Bangladesh).

The Yamuna (pronounced [jəmʊnɑː]; IAST: Yamunā) is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a height of about 4,500 m (14,800 ft)[1] on the southwestern slopes of Bandarpunch peaks of the Lower Himalaya in Uttarakhand, it travels 1,376 kilometres (855 mi) and has a drainage system of 366,223 square kilometres (141,399 sq mi), 40.2% of the entire Ganges Basin. It merges with the Ganges at Triveni Sangam, Prayagraj, which is a site of the Kumbh Mela, a Hindu festival held every 12 years.

Yamuna
Vishram Ghat, on the Yamuna at Mathura in Uttar Pradesh
Map
Location
CountryIndia
StateUttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi
CitiesHaryana: Yamunanagar

Uttar Pradesh: Kairana and Baghpat

Delhi: New Delhi

Uttar Pradesh: Noida, Mathura, Vrindavan, Agra, Firozabad, Etawah, Auraiya and Prayagraj
Physical characteristics
SourceYamunotri
 • locationBanderpooch peaks, Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand, India
 • coordinates31°1′21″N 78°27′18″E / 31.02250°N 78.45500°E / 31.02250; 78.45500
 • elevation4,500 m (14,800 ft)[1]
MouthGanges
 • location
Triveni Sangam, Prayagraj, India
 • coordinates
25°25′21″N 81°53′15″E / 25.42250°N 81.88750°E / 25.42250; 81.88750
 • elevation
84 m (276 ft)
Length1,376 km (855 mi)
Basin size366,223 km2 (141,399 sq mi)
Discharge 
 • locationPrayagraj[2]
 • average2,950 m3/s (104,000 cu ft/s)
Basin features
Tributaries 
 • leftHindon, Tons, Hanuman Ganga, Sasur Khaderi
 • rightGiri, Baghain, Sabi, Chambal, Betwa, Sindh, Ken
Yamuna
Legend
Yamunotri
Tons River
Paonta Sahib
Hathni Kund Barrage
Western Yamuna Canal
Panipat
Wazirabad Barrage
New Delhi
Old Yamuna Bridge
Okhla Barrage
Delhi Noida Direct Flyway
Noida
Somb River
Western Yamuna Canal
Hindon
Mathura
Agra
Chambal
Bhind
Sindh River
Betwa River
Ken
Allahabad
Triveni Sangam
Ganges

Like the Ganges, the Yamuna is highly venerated in Hinduism and worshipped as the goddess Yamuna. In Hinduism, she is believed to be the daughter of the sun god, Surya, and the sister of Yama, the god of death, and so she is also known as Yami. According to popular Hindu legends, bathing in Yamuna's sacred waters frees one from the torments of death.[3][4]

The river crosses several states such as Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Delhi. It also meets several tributaries along the way, including Tons, Chambal, its longest tributary which has its own large basin, followed by Sindh, the Betwa, and Ken. From Uttarakhand, the river flows into the state of Himachal Pradesh. After passing Paonta Sahib, Yamuna flows along the boundary of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh and after exiting Haryana it continues to flow till it merges with the river Ganges at Sangam or Prayag in Prayagraj (Uttar Pradesh). It helps create the highly fertile alluvial Ganges-Yamuna Doab region between itself and the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic plain.[3][4]

Nearly 57 million people depend on the Yamuna's waters, and the river accounts for more than 70 percent of Delhi's water supply. It has an annual flow of 97 billion cubic metres, and nearly 4 billion cubic metres are consumed every year (of which irrigation constitutes 96%).[3][4] At the Hathni Kund Barrage, its waters are diverted into two large canals: the Western Yamuna Canal flowing towards Haryana, and the Eastern Yamuna Canal flowing towards Uttar Pradesh. Beyond that point the Yamuna is joined by the Somb, a seasonal rivulet from Haryana, and by the highly polluted Hindon River near Noida, by Najafgarh drain near Wazirabad and by various other drains, so that it continues only as a trickling sewage-bearing drain before joining the Chambal at Pachnada in the Etawah District of Uttar Pradesh.[5]

The water quality in Upper Yamuna, as the 375-kilometre (233 mi) long stretch of Yamuna is called from its origin at Yamunotri to Okhla barrage,[6] is of "reasonably good quality" until the Wazirabad barrage in Delhi. Below this, the discharge of wastewater in Delhi through 15 drains between Wazirabad barrage and Okhla barrage renders the river severely polluted. Wazirabad barrage to Okhla Barrage, 22 km (14 mi) stretch of Yamuna in Delhi, is less than 2% of Yamuna's total length but accounts for nearly 80% of the total pollution in the river.[7] Untreated wastewater and poor quality of water discharged from the wastewater treatment plants are the major reasons of Yamuna's pollution in Delhi. To address river pollution, measures have been taken by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) under the Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) which has been implemented since 1993 by the MoEF's National River Conservation Directorate (NRCD).

Basin

edit
 
Banderpoonch peak, the source of Yamuna, as seen from Mussoorie
 
The Yamunotri temple on the river, dedicated to Goddess Yamuna
 
The Doab, United Provinces, 1908

Palaeochannels: Sarasvati's tributary

edit

The present Sarsuti river which originates in the Shivalik hills in Himachal and Haryana border and merges with Ghaggar River near Pehowa is the palaeochannel of Yamuna.[8] Yamuna changed its course to the east due to a shift in the slope of the Earth's crust caused by plate tectonics.[8]

Sources: Banderpoonch peak and Yamunotri glacier

edit

The source of Yamuna lies in the Yamunotri Glacier at an elevation of 6,387 metres (20,955 ft), on the southwestern slopes of Banderpooch peaks, which lie in the Mussoorie range of the Lower Himalayas, north of Haridwar in Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand.[3] Yamunotri temple, a shrine dedicated to the goddess Yamuna, is one of the holiest shrines in Hinduism, and part of the Chota Char Dham Yatra circuit. Also standing close to the temple, on its 13-kilometre (8 mi) trek route that follows the right bank of the river, lies Markendeya Tirtha, where the sage Markandeya wrote the Markandeya Purana.[9][10]

Current channel

edit

The river flows southwards for about 200 kilometres (120 mi), through the Lower Himalayas and the Shivalik Hills Range. Morainic deposits are found along the steep Upper Yamuna, highlighted with geomorphic features such as interlocking spurs, steep rock benches, gorges and stream terraces. Large terraces formed over a long period of time can be seen in the lower course of the river, such as those near Naugoan. An important part of its early catchment area, totalling 2,320 square kilometres (900 sq mi), lies in Himachal Pradesh. The Tons, Yamuna's largest tributary, drains a large portion of the upper catchment area and holds more water than the main stream. It rises from the Hari-ki-dun valley and merges after Kalsi near Dehradun. The drainage system of the river stretches between Giri-Sutlej catchment in Himachal and Yamuna-Bhilangna catchment in Garhwal, also draining the ridge of Shimla. Kalanag (6,387 metres [20,955 ft]) is the highest point of the Yamuna basin. Other tributaries in the region are the Giri, Rishi Ganga Kunta, Hanuman Ganga and Bata, which drain the upper catchment area of the Yamuna basin.[11]

 
Yamuna river between Saharanpur and Yamunanagar

From the upper catchment area, the river descends onto the plains of Doon Valley, at Dak Pathar near Dehradun. Flowing through the Dakpathar Barrage, the water is diverted into a canal for power generation. Further downstream, the Assan River joins the Yamuna at the Asan Barrage, which hosts a bird sanctuary. After passing the Sikh pilgrimage town of Paonta Sahib, the Yamuna reaches Tajewala in Yamuna Nagar district (named after the river) of Haryana. A dam built here in 1873 is the origin of two important canals, the Western and Eastern Yamuna Canals, which irrigate the states of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. The Western Yamuna Canal (WYC) crosses Yamuna Nagar, Karnal, Panipat and Sonipat before reaching the Haiderpur treatment plant, which contributes to Delhi's municipal water supply. The Yamuna receives wastewater from Yamuna Nagar and Panipat cities; beyond this it is replenished by seasonal streams and groundwater accrual. During the dry season, the Yamuna remains dry in many stretches between the Tajewala dam and Delhi, where it enters near the Palla barrage after traversing 224 kilometres (139 mi).[citation needed]

The Yamuna defines the state borders between Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and between Haryana, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. When the Yamuna reaches the Indo-Gangetic plain, it runs almost parallel to the Ganges, the two rivers creating the Ganges-Yamuna Doab region. Spread across 69,000 square kilometres (27,000 sq mi), one-third of the alluvial plain, the region is known for its agricultural output, particularly for the cultivation of basmati rice. The plain's agriculture supports one-third of India's population.[12]

 
Course of Yamuna, in the Indo-Gangetic Plain
State Catchment area (km2) % of catchment area
Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand 74,208 21.5
Himachal Pradesh 5,799 1.6
Haryana 21,265 6.5
Rajasthan 102,883 29.8
Madhya Pradesh 140,230 40.6
Delhi 1,485 0.4

Subsequently, the Yamuna flows through the states of Delhi, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh before merging with the Ganges at a sacred spot known as Triveni Sangam in Prayagraj. Pilgrims travel by boats to platforms erected in midstream to offer prayers. During the Kumbh Mela, held every 12 years, large congregations of people immerse themselves in the sacred waters of the confluence.[13] The cities of Baghpat, Delhi, Noida, Mathura, Agra, Firozabad, Etawah, Kalpi, Hamirpur, and Prayagraj lie on its banks. At Etawah, it meets it another important tributary, Chambal, followed by a host of tributaries further down, including, Sindh, the Betwa, and Ken.[4][14]

Important tributaries

edit
 
Yamuna River Basin (Interactive map)

Yamuna's tributaries make up 70.9% of the catchment area and the river has six important tributaries:[3]

  • Tons River is Yamuna's largest tributary[15] and rises in the 6,315-metre-high (20,719 ft) Bandarpoonch mountain. It meets Yamuna below Kalsi, near Dehradun, Uttarakhand.[15]
  • Hindon River originates from Upper Shivalik, in the Lower Himalayan Range. It is a rain fed river and has a catchment area of 7,083 square kilometres (2,735 sq mi) and traverses 400 kilometres (250 mi).[15]
  • Chambal River, also known as Charmanvati in ancient texts, flows through Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and traverses a total distance of 960 kilometres (600 mi) from its source in the Vindhya Range, near Mhow. It has a drainage basin of 143,219 square kilometres (55,297 sq mi) and it supports hydro-power generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar dam. The Chambal river merges with the Yamuna at Sahon village.[15]
  • Kali River, rises in the Doon Valley and merges with the Hindon River.[3]
  • Ken River, flows through Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. It originates near Ahirgawan village in Jabalpur district and travels a distance of 427 kilometres (265 mi) before merging with the Yamuna at Chilla village, near Fatehpur in Uttar Pradesh. It has an overall drainage basin of 28,058 square kilometres (10,833 sq mi).[16]
  • Betwa River originates in Bhopal district, in Madhya Pradesh. Its confluence with the Yamuna is in Hamirpur district, Uttar Pradesh. It has a catchment area of 46,580 km2 (17,980 sq mi).[16]

Background

edit
 
Vasudev carrying baby Lord Krishna across the Yamuna, an important legend of Bhagavata Purana, mid-18th century
 
The Yamuna beside the Taj Mahal

Etymology

edit

The name Yamuna seems to be derived from the Sanskrit word "yama", meaning 'twin', and it may have been applied to the river because it runs parallel to the Ganges.[17]

History

edit

The earliest mention of Yamuna is found at many places in the Rig Veda (c. 1500–1000 BCE), which was composed during the Vedic period c. 1700–1100 BCE, and also in the later Atharvaveda, and the Brahmanas including Aitareya Brahmana and Shatapatha Brahmana.[17] In the Rigveda, the story of the Yamuna describes her "excessive love" for her twin, Yama, who in turn asks her to find a suitable match for herself, which she does in Krishna.[18]

Yamuna is mentioned as Iomanes (Ioames) in the surveys of Seleucus I Nicator, an officer of Alexander the Great and one of the Diadochi, who visited India in 305 BCE. Greek traveller and geographer Megasthenes visited India sometime before 288 BCE (the date of Chandragupta's death) and mentioned the river in his Indica, where he described the region around it as the land of Surasena.[19] In Mahabharata, the Pandava capital of Indraprastha was situated on the banks of Yamuna, considered to be the site of modern Delhi.[citation needed]

Geological evidence indicates that in the distant past the Yamuna was a tributary of the Ghaggar River (identified by some as the Vedic Sarasvati River). It later changed its course eastward, becoming a tributary of the Ganges. While some have argued that this was due to a tectonic event, and may have led to the Sarasvati River drying up, the end of many Harappan civilisation settlements, and creation of the Thar desert,[20][21][22] recent geological research suggests that the diversion of the Yamuna to the Ganges may have occurred during the Pleistocene, and thus could not be connected to the decline of the Harappan civilisation in the region.[23]

Most of the great empires which ruled over a majority of India were based in the highly fertile Ganges–Yamuna basin, including the Magadha (c. 600 BCE), Maurya Empire (321–185 BCE), Shunga Empire (185–73 BCE), Kushan Empire (1st–3rd centuries CE), and Gupta Empire (280–550 CE), and many had their capitals here, in cities like Pataliputra or Mathura. These rivers were revered throughout these kingdoms that flourished on their banks; since the period of Chandragupta II (r. 375–415 CE), statues both the Ganges and Yamuna became common throughout the Gupta Empire. Further to the South, images of the Ganges and Yamuna are found amidst shrines of the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas (753–982), and on their royal seals; prior to them, the Chola Empire also added the river into their architectural motifs. The Three River Goddess shrine, next to the Kailash rock-cut Temple at Ellora, shows the Ganges flanked by the Yamuna and Saraswati.[24]

Use of water

edit

1994 water sharing agreement

edit

The stretch of the river from its origin at Yamunotri to Okhla barrage in Delhi is called "Upper Yamuna". A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed amongst the five basin states (Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Delhi) on 12 May 1994 for sharing of its waters. This led to the formation of the Upper Yamuna River Board under India's Ministry of Water Resources, whose primary functions are: regulation of the available flows amongst the beneficiary states and monitoring the return flows; monitoring conservation and upgrading the quality of surface and groundwater; maintaining hydro-meteorological data for the basin; overviewing plans for watershed management; and monitoring and reviewing the progress of all projects up to and including Okhla barrage.[25]

Flood forecasting systems are established at Poanta Sahib, where Tons, Pawar and Giri tributaries meet. The river take 60 hours to travel from Tajewala to Delhi, thus allowing a two-day advance flood warning period.[3][26][27] The Central Water Commission started flood-forecasting services in 1958 with its first forecasting station on Yamuna at Delhi Railway Bridge.[28]

Barrages

edit

Yamuna has the following six functional barrages (eight including old replaced barrages, nine including a new proposed barrage), from north-west to southeast:[29][30][31][32][needs update]

  • Dakpathar Barrage in Uttarakhand, managed by the Uttarakhand government.
  • Hathni Kund Barrage in Haryana, 172 km (107 mi) from the source of Yamuna, built in 1999 and managed by Haryana government.[33][34]
  • Wazirabad barrage in north Delhi, 244 km (152 mi) from Hathni Kund barrage, managed by the Delhi government.[35]
    • "New Wazirabad barrage", proposed in 2013, to be built 8 km (5.0 mi) north of the Wazirabad barrage.
  • ITO barrage (Indraparstha barrage) in central Delhi, managed by the Haryana govt.[35]
  • Okhla barrage is 22 km (14 mi) from Wazirabad to south Delhi, managed by the Uttar Pradesh (UP) government.[35]
  • Gokul barrage (a.k.a. Mathura barrage) is at Gokul in Uttar Pradesh, managed by the UP government.

Irrigation

edit
 
Agra Canal headworks at Okhla barrage, Delhi, 1871

Use of the Yamuna's waters for irrigation in the Indo-Gangetic Plains is enhanced by its many canals, some dating to the 14th century Tughlaq dynasty, which built the Nahr-i-Bahisht (Paradise) parallel to the river. The Nahr-i-Bahisht was restored and extended by the Mughals in the first half of the 17th century, by engineer Ali Mardan Khan, starting from Benawas where the river enters the plains and terminating near the Mughal capital of Shahjahanabad, the present city of Delhi.[36]

Eastern Yamuna Canal

edit

As the Yamuna enters the Northern Plains near Dakpathar at an elevation of 790 metres (2,590 ft), the Eastern Yamuna Canal commences at the Dakpathar Barrage and pauses at the Asan and Hathnikund Barrages before continuing south.[33][34]

Western Yamuna Canal

edit
Main article: Western Yamuna Canal

The Western Yamuna Canal (WYC) was built in 1335 CE by Firuz Shah Tughlaq. Excessive silting caused it to stop flowing c. 1750, when the British Raj undertook a three-year renovation in 1817 by Bengal Engineer Group. The Tajewala Barrage dam was built in 1832–33[timeframe?] to regulate the flow of water, and was replaced by the modern Hathni Kund Barrage in 1999.[37]

The main canal is 86 kilometres (53 mi) long.[37] When including its branches and many major and minor irrigation channels, it has a total length of 325 km (202 mi)[38] The WYC begins at the Hathni Kund Barrage about 38 km (24 mi) from Dakpathar and south of Doon Valley. The canals irrigate vast tracts of land in the region in Ambala, Karnal, Sonipat, Rohtak, Jind, Hisar and Bhiwani districts.[37]

The major branch canals are:

edit
Main article: Sutlej Yamuna link canal

A proposed heavy freight canal, the Sutlej–Yamuna Link (SYL), is being built westwards from near Yamuna's headwaters through the Punjab region near an ancient caravan route and highlands pass to the navigable parts of the Sutlej–Indus watershed. This will connect the Ganges, which flows to the east coast of the subcontinent, with points west (via Pakistan). When completed, the SYL will allow shipping from India's east coast to the west coast and the Arabian Sea, shortening important commercial links for north-central India's large population. The canal starts near Delhi, and is designed to transfer Haryana's share of 4.3 km3 (3,500,000 acre⋅ft) from the Indus Basin.[citation needed]

National Waterway

edit

Yamuna is one of the National Waterways of India, designated as NW110 in Haryana, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. Some of its sections are being developed for navigation:[43][44]

Religious significance

edit
 
The goddess Yamuna

Purifying waters

edit
Main article: Yamuna in Hinduism

Like the Ganges, the Yamuna River is highly venerated in Hinduism in the form of a river and as the goddess Yamuna. The Yamuna is considered a river of heaven. The Rig Veda includes the Yamuna River as one of the seven sacred rivers, along with the Ganges.[45] According to Hindu mythology, the River was brought to Earth by the ascetic practice of the Seven Sages where she first descended on Mount Kalinda. Therefore, Yamuna is also known as Kalindi.[45]

The Padma Purana describes Yamuna's purifying properties and states that her waters cleanse the mind from sin. It also mentions that bathing in her sacred waters frees one from the torments of death.[46] Art from the Gupta period depict Yamuna and Ganga on the entrances and doorjambs of temples and sacred places. Upon passing through these doors, visitors were symbolically purified by these rivers.[47]

Some religious figures (notably pilgrim priests of Mathura and Vrindavan) do not regard the physical pollution of the Yamuna to have any effect on the river's spiritual purity. The Braj region is where the worship of the Yamuna and its pollution is most pronounced. However, more and more Hindus no longer ritually bathe in the Yamuna, drink its water, or use its water for worship. In Vrindavan's holy shrines, bottled water is used instead.[48]

Goddess personified

edit

In her human form, Yamuna is the daughter of Surya, the sun god, and his wife Saranyu. She is the twin sister of Yama, the god of death, and is also known as Yami.[49] The Agni Purana describes Yamuna as having a dark complexion, mounted on a turtle, and holding a pot in her hand.[46]

Devotion

edit

Yamuna, as a river and goddess, has a close association with Krishna. The Puranas narrate many stories about Krishna in relation to the river and its surroundings. One such story is of Kaliya Daman, the subduing of Kaliya, a Nāga which had inhabited the river and terrorised the people of Braja.[50][51] Due to Krishna's connection with the River and the Braja region, the Yamuna River is a center of pilgrimage for his devotees. In the Pushti Marga, founded by Vallabhacharya and in which Krishna is the main deity, Yamuna is worshipped as a goddess.[46]

The Yamunashtakam is a 16th-century Sanskrit hymn composed by Vallabhacharya which describes the story of Yamuna's descent to meet her beloved Krishna and to purify the world. The hymn also praises her for being the source of all spiritual abilities. And while the Ganges is considered an epitome of asceticism and higher knowledge and can grant Moksha or liberation, it is Yamuna, who, being a holder of infinite love and compassion, can grant freedom, even from death, the realm of her elder brother. Vallabhacharya writes that she rushes down the Kalinda Mountain, and describes her as the daughter of Kalinda, giving her the name Kalindi, the backdrop of Krishna Leela. The text also talks about her water being the colour of Lord Krishna, which is dark (Shyam).[52][53] The river is referred to as Asita in some historical texts.[54]

Shlokas on Yamuna

edit

Numerous Hindu texts have shlokas (hymns) on Yamuna as follows:

  • "One should not give up the process of austerity. If possible, one should bathe in the water of the Yamuna. This is an item of austerity. Therefore, our Krishna consciousness movement has established a center in Vrindavana so that one may bathe in the Yamuna, chant the Hare Krishna mantra and then become perfect and return back to Godhead." (Srimad Bhagavatam 6.5.28 purport)[55]

Ecology

edit

Fauna

edit

The Yamuna from the source to its culmination in Ganges is a habitat for fish for approximately 1,400 km (870 mi) stretch and supports a rich diversity of species. Fish from the family Cyprinidae dominate the variety of fish species found in the river. This includes Indian carp and also invasive species from the family. In a study, 93 species of fish were found in the river including catfish.[56][57] Species of non-native Tilapia have become established in the river. They have been implicated in the decline of the Ghariyal (Indian crocodile) population in the river.[58] Large turtles used to be a common sight on the river a few decades ago but they have mostly disappeared.[59]

Pollution

edit
 
The Yamuna near the Himalayas, just as it reaches the plains, beyond Dehradun in Uttarakhand

In 1909, the waters of the Yamuna were distinguishable as clear blue, when compared to the silt-laden yellow of the Ganges.[60] However, due to high-density population growth and fast industrialisation, Yamuna has become one of the most polluted rivers in the world.[61] The Yamuna is particularly polluted downstream of New Delhi, the capital of India, which dumps about 58% of its waste into the river. A 2016 study shows that there is 100% urban metabolism of River Yamuna as it passes through the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi.[62] The most pollution comes from Wazirabad, from where Yamuna enters Delhi.[63]

In November of 2024, a video went viral in which women were depicted bathing in foam that had emerged in the river. Although it appeared similar to that resulting from cosmetic products such as soap or shampoo, experts determined that the foam was caused by heavy pollution, and was therefore hazardous. Local authorities instructed residents not to bathe in the river for health concerns.[64]

Causes

edit

The Wazirabad barrage to the New Okhla Barrage segment, "22 km stretch of Yamuna in Delhi, is less than 2% of Yamuna's total length but accounts for nearly 80% of the total pollution in the river",[7] 22 out of 35 sewage treatment plants in Delhi do not meet the wastewater standards prescribed by the Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC), thus untreated wastewater and poor quality of water discharged from the wastewater treatment plants are the major reasons.[7] As of 2019, the river receives 800 million litres of largely untreated sewage and additional 44 million litres of industrial effluents each day, of which only 35 percent of the sewage released into the river are believed to be treated.[65] In 1994, the states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Delhi made a water sharing agreement that is due for revision in 2025. To achieve a water quality suitable for bathing (BOD<3 mg/L and DO>5 mg/L) would require a greater rate of water flow in the river. A study has recommended that 23 cubic metres (23,000 L; 5,100 imp gal) per second of water should be released from Hathni Kund Barrage during the lean season to provide a minimum environmental flow in the Yamuna.[7]

The last barrage across the Yamuna river is the Mathura barrage at Gokul to supply its drinking water. Downstream of this barrage, many pumping stations are constructed to feed the river water for irrigation needs.[66] These pumping stations are near Pateora Danda 25°55′09″N 80°13′27″E / 25.91917°N 80.22417°E / 25.91917; 80.22417, Samgara 25°41′13″N 80°46′27″E / 25.68694°N 80.77417°E / 25.68694; 80.77417, Ainjhi 25°43′35″N 80°49′33″E / 25.72639°N 80.82583°E / 25.72639; 80.82583, Bilas Khadar 25°31′35″N 81°02′43″E / 25.52639°N 81.04528°E / 25.52639; 81.04528, and Samari 25°27′19″N 81°11′43″E / 25.45528°N 81.19528°E / 25.45528; 81.19528. Depletion of the base flows available in the river during the non-monsoon months by these pump houses is exacerbating river pollution from Mathura to Prayagraj in the absence of adequate fresh water to dilute the polluted drainage from habitations and industries.[citation needed]

Cleanup efforts

edit

To address river pollution, measures have been taken by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) in 12 towns of Haryana, 8 towns of Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi, under the Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) which has been implemented since 1993 by the MoEF's National River Conservation Directorate (NRCD). The Japan Bank for International Cooperation is participating in the YAP in 15 of the towns (excluding 6 towns of Haryana included later on the direction of the Supreme Court of India) with soft loan assistance of 17.773 billion Japanese yen (equivalent to about ₹700 crore [7 billion rupees]) while the government of India is providing the funds for the remaining 6 towns. In 2007, the Indian government's plans to repair sewage lines were predicted to improve the water quality of the river 90% by 2010.[67][68][69][needs update]

Under the YAP- III scheme, a new sewage treatment plant is being built at the largest such facility in India by the Delhi Jal Board (DJB). The plant is predicted to be able to treat 124 million gallons of wastewater per day, amounting to a daily removal of 41,200 kg (90,800 lb) of organic pollutants as well as 61,600 kg (135,800 lb) of solids.[70]

In August 2009, the Delhi Jal Board (DJB) initiated its plan for resuscitating the Yamuna's 22-kilometre (14 mi) stretch in Delhi by constructing interceptor sewers, at the cost of about ₹1,800 crore (18 billion rupees).[71]

On 25 April 2014, the National Green Tribunal Act (NGA) recommended the government to declare a 52-kilometre (32 mi) stretch of the Yamuna in Delhi and Uttar Pradesh as a conservation zone. A report prepared by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) panel was submitted to the NGA on the same day.[72]

The High Court in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand ordered in March 2017 that the Ganges and its main tributary, the Yamuna, be assigned the status of legal entities, making the rivers "legal and living entities having the status of a legal person with all corresponding rights, duties and liabilities".[73] This decision meant that polluting or damaging the rivers is equivalent to harming a person. The court cited the example of the New Zealand Whanganui River, which was also declared to possess full rights of a legal person.[73]

edit
  •  
    The Yamuna, seen from the Taj Mahal at Agra in Uttar Pradesh
  •  
    Madan Mohan temple, on the Yamuna at Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh, 1789; the river has since shifted further away
  •  
    'Keshi Ghat' on the Yamuna at Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh
  •  
    The Yamuna near Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh, just a few kilometres before it meets the Ganges
  •  
    The Yamuna near Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh, during the monsoon
  •  
    View of Yamuna from Okhla Sanctuary
  •  
    View of Yamuna from Kesi Ghata
  •  
    The Yamuna view from Hathni Kund Barrage

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ a b "Yamuna" (Map). Google Maps. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  2. ^ Jain, Sharad K.; Agarwal, Pushpendra K.; Singh, Vijay P. (2007). Hydrology and water resources of India. Springer. p. 341. Bibcode:2007hwri.book.....J. ISBN 978-1-4020-5179-1. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Jain, Sharad K.; Agarwal, Pushpendra K.; Singh, Vijay P. (2007). Hydrology and water resources of India—Volume 57 of Water science and technology library. Springer. pp. 344–354. ISBN 978-1-4020-5179-1. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  4. ^ a b c d e Hoiberg, Dale (2000). Students' Britannica India, Volumes 1-5. Popular Prakashan. pp. 290–291. ISBN 0-85229-760-2. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  5. ^ Sharma, Vibha (18 November 2007). "And filthy flows the Yamuna". The Tribune (Chandigarh). Archived from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
  6. ^ 2015, INDIA 2015 Archived 23 September 2024 at the Wayback Machine, New Media Wing.
  7. ^ a b c d "Yamuna not fit for bathing, says govt report". The New Indian Express. 27 July 2021. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
  8. ^ a b PALAEOCHANNELS OF NORTH WEST INDIA Archived 15 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Central Ground Water Board, last page of prefce.
  9. ^ Yamunotri Temple Uttarkashi district website. Archived 31 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ Nand, Nitya; Kumar, Kamlesh (1989). The holy Himalaya: a geographical interpretation of Garhwal – Yamuna Drainage System. Daya Books. p. 49. ISBN 81-7035-055-7. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  11. ^ "Rivers of Himachal Pradesh". Webindia123.com. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
  12. ^ Sharma, Deo Prakash (2006). Archaeology of Lower Ganga-Yamuna Doab (circa 1200 B.C. to 1200 A.D.). Bharatiya Kala Prakashan. pp. 10, 214. ISBN 81-8090-033-9. "Doab is a Persian word, from Do-Ab, literally meaning 'two rivers', or land between two rivers".
  13. ^ At the Three Rivers TIME, 23 February 1948.
  14. ^ "State of River Yamuna". Archived from the original on 13 April 2018. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
  15. ^ a b c d Sharad K., Jain; Pushpendra K., Agarwal; Vijay P., Singh (16 May 2007). Hydrology and Water Resources of India Volume 57 of Water Science and Technology Library. Springer Science & Business Media, 2007. pp. 349–351. ISBN 9781402051807. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  16. ^ a b Rai, Raveendra Kumar; Upadhyay, Alka; Ojha, C. Shekhar P.; Singh, Vijay P. (25 November 2011). The Yamuna River Basin: Water Resources and Environment. Springer Science. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-94-007-2001-5. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 25 July 2024.
  17. ^ a b MacDonell, Arthur Anthony; Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1995). Vedic Index of Names and Subjects (V-208-1333-2). Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 186. ISBN 9788120813335. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  18. ^ Gary, Chamberlain (2008). Troubled Waters: Religion, Ethics, and the Global Water Crisis. Rowman & Littlefield, 2008. p. 18. ISBN 9780742552456. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  19. ^ Dahlaquist, Allan (1996). Megasthenes and Indian Religion- Volume 11 of History and Culture Series. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 386. ISBN 81-208-1323-5. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  20. ^ Ghosh, A. (1991). Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology. BRILL. p. 214. ISBN 90-04-09264-1.
  21. ^ Feuerstein, Georg; Kak, Subhash; Frawley, David (2001). In Search of the Cradle of Civilization. Quest Books. p. 89. ISBN 0-8356-0741-0. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  22. ^ Frawley, David (2000). Gods, Sages and Kings: Vedic Secrets of Ancient Civilization. Lotus Press. p. 95. ISBN 0-910261-37-7.
  23. ^ Clift et al. 2012. "U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River." Geology, v. 40. [1] Archived 2 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ^ Davis, Richard H. (1999). Lives of Indian images. Princeton University Press. pp. 74–76. ISBN 0-691-00520-6. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  25. ^ Upper Yamuna River Board Archived 17 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine Official website.
  26. ^ Rao, K.L. (1979). India's Water Wealth – Flood Forecasting system of Yamuna. Orient Blackswan. p. 163. ISBN 81-250-0704-0. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  27. ^ Negi, Sharad Singh (1991). Himalayan rivers, lakes, and glaciers. Indus Publishing. pp. 141–142. ISBN 81-85182-61-2. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  28. ^ Flood Forecasting Network in India Ministry of Water Resources website.
  29. ^ Bharati Chaturvedi, 2010, Finding Delhi: Loss and Renewal in the Megacity Archived 23 September 2024 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ^ "Regional plan" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
  31. ^ Bharati Chaturvedi, 2010, Finding Delhi: Loss and Renewal in the Megacity Archived 23 September 2024 at the Wayback Machine, Page 78.
  32. ^ ML Ahmed, Analysis of Discharge and Gauge-Level Data at Old Railway Bridge, Int'l Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Energy and Manufacturing Engineering (ICAEME’2014), 9–10 June 2014, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia).
  33. ^ a b c Tak, Prakash C.; Sati, Jagdish P.; Rizvi, Anjum N. (April 2010). "Status of waterbirds at Hathnikund Barrage wetland, Yamunanagar District, Haryana, India" (PDF). p. 841. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
  34. ^ a b c Haberman, David L. (2006). River of love in an age of pollution: the Yamuna River of northern India. University of California Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-520-24789-5. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
  35. ^ a b c d Too many cooks spoil the broth Archived 2 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine, The Hindu, 29 March 2016.
  36. ^ Woodward, David; John Brian Harley (1987). The History of cartography, Volume 2, Part 1. Oxford University Press US. p. 438. ISBN 0-226-31635-1. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Western yaumna Canal Project". Archived from the original on 13 November 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
  38. ^ a b "India Water Portal" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
  39. ^ a b c "Planning Commission of India: Western Yaumna Canal" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
  40. ^ a b Moudgil, Rajesh (9 April 2016). "Munak water supply fully restored to Delhi". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
  41. ^ a b "Jind district profile" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 April 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
  42. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Delhibird.com". Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
  43. ^ a b "Yamuna water link may get govt nod". Times of India. 6 April 2016. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
  44. ^ a b Sultan, Parvez (1 February 2017). "Steamer service to revive navigation in Agra Canal after 143 years". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
  45. ^ a b Eck, Diana L. (2012). India : a sacred geography. New York: Harmony Books.
  46. ^ a b c Haberman, David L. (2006). River of love in an age of pollution : the Yamuna River of northern India. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.
  47. ^ Dallapiccola, Anna L. (2007). Indian art in detail. Harvard University Press.
  48. ^ Kumar, Bidisha; James, George (2018). "Yamuna". In Jacobsen, Knut A.; Basu, Helene; Malinar, Angelika; Narayanan, Vasudha (eds.). Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Online. Brill.
  49. ^ Bhagavata Purana 8.13.9
  50. ^ Dimmitt, Cornelia (1978). Classical Hindu mythology: a reader in the Sanskrit Purānas. Temple University Press. p. 329. ISBN 0-87722-122-7. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  51. ^ "Yamunashtakam Text and Translation". Archived from the original on 25 June 2010.
  52. ^ Shiva, Vandana (2006). Earth democracy: justice, sustainability and peace-G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Zed Books. pp. 172–173. ISBN 1-84277-777-7. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  53. ^ Chamberlain, Gary (2008). Troubled waters: religion, ethics, and the global water crisis. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-7425-5245-6. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  54. ^ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 72.
  55. ^ "Yamuna River", Mathura-Vrindavan, archived from the original on 28 July 2021, retrieved 28 July 2021
  56. ^ Sharma, H.S., 2007. Freshwater Fishes. Fauna of Madhya Pradesh (including Chhattisgarh), State Fauna Series, 15(1), pp.147–244.[2] Archived 2 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  57. ^ Sharma, A.P., Das, M.K., Samanta, S., Paul, S.K. and Bhowmick, S., 2014. The ecology and fishery status of river Yamuna. Bulletin, (184), pp.1–32.http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.709.760&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  58. ^ "Lang, J.W., Chowfin, S. and Ross, J.P., 2019. Gavialis gangeficus". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  59. ^ Haberman, David (10 September 2006). River of Love in an Age of Pollution: The Yamuna River of Northern India. University of California Press. pp. 9, 91. ISBN 978-0-520-93962-2. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2020.
  60. ^ The Ganges and the Jumna Archived 23 September 2024 at the Wayback Machine The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909 v. 1, p. 23.
  61. ^ Chaudhary, Meenakshi; Walker, Tony R. (2019). "River Ganga pollution: Causes and failed management plans (correspondence on Dwivedi et al. 2018. Ganga water pollution: A potential health threat to inhabitants of Ganga basin. Environment International 117, 327–338)". Environment International. 126: 202–206. Bibcode:2019EnInt.126..202C. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2019.02.033. PMID 30802637.
  62. ^ "Urban Metabolism of River Yamuna in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, India". ResearchGate. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  63. ^ Sharma, Manju & Chaudhry, Smita. (2015). Impact of Industrial Pollution on Yamuna River: A Review Archived 23 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine. 10.13140/RG.2.1.3632.8401.
  64. ^ "Woman washes hair in Yamuna with hazardous foam in viral video; Social media exclaimed 'not shampoo'; Here's clip". The Economic Times. 8 November 2024.
  65. ^ Sukanan, Darunee (26 November 2019). "A 'sacred' river in India has become polluted beyond belief". Sustainability Times. Archived from the original on 28 November 2019. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  66. ^ "list of head works (Dams,_Barrages, Weirs, Anicuts, Lifts) on Yamuna/Ganga river". Archived from the original on 21 September 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
  67. ^ Pepper, Daniel (27 July 2007). "India's 'flush-and-forget' mindset". SFGate.com. San Francisco Chronicle. pp. A17–A18. Archived from the original on 10 April 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2007.
  68. ^ "CAG castigates Delhi Govt over Yamuna river pollution". Indian Express. 8 April 2000. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
  69. ^ Pepper, Daniel (4 June 2007). "India's rivers are drowning in pollution". Fortune. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 August 2020.
  70. ^ "India's largest sewage treatment plant to come up at Okhla: DJB". The Economic Times. 29 May 2019. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  71. ^ Gupta, Geeta (31 August 2009). "Inflow to Yamuna to be cleaned up at last". Indian Express. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012.
  72. ^ "Panel: Scrap Yamuna riverfront project". Delhi Daily News. 26 April 2014. Archived from the original on 16 July 2014.
  73. ^ a b Safi, Michael; Agencies (21 March 2017). "Ganges and Yamuna rivers granted same legal rights as human beings". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2019.

Further reading

edit
edit
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yamuna River.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yamuna&oldid=1261712207"