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Volume 15
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Buildings, Volume 15, Issue 1 (January-1 2025) – 149 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Concrete delamination can be effectively detected using infrared thermography; however, its performance is often affected by surface variations such as different color coatings, making the thermal contrast developed for delamination quantification un-robust in the natural environment. To reveal the key impact of concrete surface conditions on thermal contrast development, the relevant factors such as surface absorptivity, emissivity, ambient temperatures, and their interactive relation to the detection time window need to be investigated over the solar loading cycles. View this paper
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23 pages, 949 KiB  
Review
Review of Prediction Models for Chloride Ion Concentration in Concrete Structures
by Jiwei Ma, Qiuwei Yang, Xinhao Wang, Xi Peng and Fengjiang Qin
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010149 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 349
Abstract
Chloride ion concentration significantly impacts the durability of reinforced concrete, particularly regarding corrosion. Accurately assessing how this concentration varies with the age of structures is crucial for ensuring their safety and longevity. Recently, several predictive models have emerged to analyze chloride ion concentration [...] Read more.
Chloride ion concentration significantly impacts the durability of reinforced concrete, particularly regarding corrosion. Accurately assessing how this concentration varies with the age of structures is crucial for ensuring their safety and longevity. Recently, several predictive models have emerged to analyze chloride ion concentration over time, classified into empirical models and machine learning models based on their data processing techniques. Empirical models directly relate chloride ion concentration to the age of concrete through specific functions. Their primary advantage lies in their low data requirements, making them convenient for engineering use. However, these models often fail to account for multiple influencing factors, which can limit their accuracy. Conversely, machine learning models can handle various factors simultaneously, providing a more detailed understanding of how chloride concentration evolves. When adequately trained with sufficient experimental data, these models generally offer superior prediction accuracy compared to mathematical models. The downside is that they necessitate a larger dataset for training, which can complicate their practical application. Future research could focus on combining machine learning and empirical models, leveraging their respective strengths to achieve a more precise evaluation of chloride ion concentration in relation to structural age. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete in the Digital Age: Advanced Simulations for Structural Innovation)
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17 pages, 4321 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Anti-Scour Device Combined with Perforated Baffle and Ring-Wing Plate Based on a Multi-Factor Orthogonal Experiment
by Yan Wang, Rongjun Liao, Pei Yuan and Jinchao Chen
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010148 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 261
Abstract
In this paper, a new anti-scour device combined with a perforated baffle and ring-wing plate is proposed to enhance the traditional method for better protection of bridge piers from local scour. Based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD), the orthogonal experiments investigated the general [...] Read more.
In this paper, a new anti-scour device combined with a perforated baffle and ring-wing plate is proposed to enhance the traditional method for better protection of bridge piers from local scour. Based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD), the orthogonal experiments investigated the general laws of the influence of the main factors, such as the ratio of baffle perforated, the position of baffle, and the height of ring-wing plate on the anti-scour effect. Under the protection of the combined device, the maximum scour depth reduction rate in front of the pier is between 65.18% and 81.01%, while that at the side of the pier is between 52.63% and 68.42%. Especially when the perforated ratio is 20%, the baffle is 2d (d is diameter of the pier) away from the pier, and the ring-wing plate is located at 1/3 of water depth, the anti-scour effect is the best. Also, the flow field around the pier under the protection of the combined device is further investigated. The results show that the structure blocks the down-flow actively and diverts and dissipates the flow energy to decrease flow below the critical velocity of sediment. Thus, the device combined with perforated baffle and ring-wing plate has a prominent anti-scour effect and provides a basis for further studies and engineering application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Urban and Architectural Design)
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18 pages, 6340 KiB  
Article
Hysteretic Behavior Study on the RBS Connection of H-Shape Columns with Middle-Flanges or Wide-Flange H-Shape Beams
by Saleem Mohammed Ali Ahmed Al-Saeedi, Linfeng Lu, Osama Zaid Yahya Al-Ansi and Saddam Ali
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010147 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 263
Abstract
Existing research on reduced beam section (RBS) connections in steel frames rarely addresses H-shaped beams with middle and wide flanges. Therefore, this study investigates the hysteretic behavior of RBS connections in H-shaped columns connected to H-shaped beams with middle and wide flanges. Using [...] Read more.
Existing research on reduced beam section (RBS) connections in steel frames rarely addresses H-shaped beams with middle and wide flanges. Therefore, this study investigates the hysteretic behavior of RBS connections in H-shaped columns connected to H-shaped beams with middle and wide flanges. Using finite element analysis, the influence of key parameters (a, b, and c, where “a” represents the unweakened beam flange extension length, “b” represents the weakened beam flange length, and “c” represents the weakened beam flange depth, respectively) on structural performance was evaluated, focusing on rotational stiffness, load-carrying capacity, plastic rotation capacity, and ductility. The results indicate that increasing a enhances initial rotational stiffness and load capacity but reduces plastic rotation and ductility, making lower a values (near 0.5bf) optimal for ductile performance. Similarly, higher b values (up to 0.85bf) marginally reduce stiffness and load capacity, improving plastic rotation capacity, with a greater benefit in wide-flange beams. Meanwhile, a lower c value (around 0.20bf) offered balanced performance, with higher c values decreasing stiffness and load capacity but enhancing ductility. Overall, wider flanges improve plastic rotation and ductility but slightly decrease rotational stiffness, providing insights to guide RBS connection designs for seismic resilience. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies on Steel Structures)
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18 pages, 3718 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Assessment of a Structural Insulated Panel Modular House in New Zealand
by Aflah Alamsah Dani, Ran Feng, Zhiyuan Fang and Krishanu Roy
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010146 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 282
Abstract
Innovative solutions are essential to meet the increasing demand for housing in New Zealand. These innovations must also be sustainable, given the significant contribution of the building and construction sectors to global carbon emissions (25–40%) and, specifically, to New Zealand’s gross carbon emissions [...] Read more.
Innovative solutions are essential to meet the increasing demand for housing in New Zealand. These innovations must also be sustainable, given the significant contribution of the building and construction sectors to global carbon emissions (25–40%) and, specifically, to New Zealand’s gross carbon emissions (20%). This research aims to analyse the environmental impacts of a structural insulated panel (SIP) modular house and evaluate this innovative approach as a sustainable solution to the current housing issue. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted using the New Zealand-specific tool LCAQuick V3.6. The analysis considered seven environmental impact indicators, namely, global warming potential (GWP), ozone depletion potential (ODP), acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP), abiotic depletion potential for elements (ADPE), and abiotic depletion potential for fossil fuels (ADPF), with a cradle-to-cradle system boundary. Focusing on the embodied carbon of the SIP modular house, the study revealed that the whole-of-life embodied carbon was 347.15 kg CO2 eq/m2, including Module D, and the upfront carbon was 285.08 kg CO2 eq/m2. The production stage (Modules A1–A3) was identified as the most significant source of carbon emissions due to substantial energy consumption in activities such as sourcing raw materials, transportation, and final product manufacturing. Specifically, the study found that SIP wall and roof panels were the most significant contributors to the house’s overall embodied carbon, with SIP roof panels contributing 25% and SIP wall panels contributing 19%, collectively accounting for 44%. Hence, the study underscored the SIP modular house as a promising sustainable solution to the housing crisis while emphasising the inclusion of operational carbon in further research to fully understand its potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
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25 pages, 9570 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Recycled Crushed Brick Aggregate on the Physical–Mechanical Properties of Earth Blocks
by Carlos Alberto Casapino-Espinoza, José Manuel Gómez-Soberón and María Consolación Gómez-Soberón
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010145 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 439
Abstract
The use of different components, such as alternative aggregates, represents an innovation in construction. According to various studies, these components improve certain properties of the elements that incorporate them. Specifically, recycled construction aggregates (RCAs)—such as crushed ceramic bricks (CCBs)—offer several benefits, including reducing [...] Read more.
The use of different components, such as alternative aggregates, represents an innovation in construction. According to various studies, these components improve certain properties of the elements that incorporate them. Specifically, recycled construction aggregates (RCAs)—such as crushed ceramic bricks (CCBs)—offer several benefits, including reducing landfill waste, enhancing the mechanical properties of the elements that integrate them, and ensuring availability. This research focuses on utilizing these waste materials and determining their feasibility and compatibility (in the short term) for manufacturing traditional earth blocks (EBs). This is achieved by studying the physical and mechanical properties of CCBs in matrices for EB construction, adhering to performance standards, emphasizing the advantages these aggregates provide for mechanical properties in sustainable construction and applying them in the context of traditional construction. Correlations were established through a statistical study of experimental data, graphically indicating the relationship between the different properties of CCBs, the mix design process, and the structural behavior of the resulting EB. Based on the key variable of the CCB replacement percentage, properties such as the elastic module by ultrasound, porosity, and expansion by hygroscopicity were analyzed, alongside mechanical properties like compressive and flexural strength. The results show that EBs with CCBs increases porosity by up to 21.59%. These blocks exhibit dimensional shrinkage of up to 14.5%, correlating with the increase in the CCB content. This aggregate replacement leads to a reduction in compressive strength (up to −23%) and flexural strength (up to −17.43%); however, all CCB content levels studied met the requirements of the applied standards. It is concluded that CCBs satisfactorily modifies the properties of the EBs and is suitable for use in construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Building Materials: Recycled Waste and Sustainable Design)
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14 pages, 11335 KiB  
Article
Indoor Air Pollutant (PM 10, CO2) Reduction Using a Vortex Exhaust Ventilation System in a Mock-Up Room
by Yong-Woo Song, Seong-Eun Kim and Jin-Chul Park
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010144 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 275
Abstract
In this study, a performance comparison experiment with a vortex exhaust installed at the end of a ventilation device to enhance the effect induced by reducing indoor pollutants was conducted. The experiment was carried out by constructing a mock-up room with a limited [...] Read more.
In this study, a performance comparison experiment with a vortex exhaust installed at the end of a ventilation device to enhance the effect induced by reducing indoor pollutants was conducted. The experiment was carried out by constructing a mock-up room with a limited indoor environment, and performances were compared based on the following two tests. First, to confirm the effect of pollutant reduction, the wind speed was measured based on the distance from each exhaust system to verify the depth and speed at which wind can flow. Pollutants were induced to the vortex exhaust, general exhaust gasses were generated, and their performances were compared. Second, Arizona dust was used to confirm the performance with regard to the removal of pollutants which existed in particulate form (PM 10), and for CO2 gas, a representative gaseous pollutant was used as a reference. Based on the results, it was confirmed that installing a vortex exhaust system can allow for the generation of wind speeds that allow propagation at greater depths (>110 mm) compared to cases in which general exhaust is used; accordingly, exhaust performance can be achieved at increased depths. In addition, the experiment confirmed that vortex exhaust can improve the efficiency of simultaneous removal of PM 10 and CO2 compared with general exhaust. Further, it was shown that installing a vortex exhaust system can remove PM 10 and CO2 farther from the exhaust port in a shorter period than a general exhaust port. In addition, it was inferred that vortex exhaust can be utilized to prevent indoor pollutants and diseases in combination with the latest technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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27 pages, 12396 KiB  
Article
Research on Bearing Capacity Characteristics of Cave Piles
by Lixin Ou, Yufeng Huang, Xu Chen, Yang Xue, Qingfu Li and Biao Guo
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010143 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 203
Abstract
To investigate the load-bearing characteristics of a pile foundation with multiple piles passing through karst caves and the extent of the caves’ influence, this study takes the Qihe Bridge, a key project of the second section of the Anhe Expressway, as a case [...] Read more.
To investigate the load-bearing characteristics of a pile foundation with multiple piles passing through karst caves and the extent of the caves’ influence, this study takes the Qihe Bridge, a key project of the second section of the Anhe Expressway, as a case study. Field tests on the bearing capacity of the pile foundation, passing through underlying karst caves, were conducted. Piles passing through the caves were selected as test piles, and a finite element analysis of the Qihe Bridge pile foundation structure was performed using Midas GTS NX 2022 software. After verifying the accuracy of the software’s calculation results, this study further explored the distribution patterns of factors such as axial force, side friction resistance, settlement, and relative displacement between the pile and soil with respect to the position of the pile. Special attention was given to monitoring locations at the interface between rock and soil layers, as well as within the depth range of the karst caves. The horizontal axial force on the piles was found to increase with the depth of the caves. By analyzing the distribution patterns of axial force, side friction resistance, settlement, and pile–soil relative displacement, the study clarifies the mechanism by which karst caves affect the load-bearing behavior of pile foundations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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18 pages, 5605 KiB  
Article
Empirical Study of the Relationship of Architectural Form Details to the State of Conservation of Modern Heritage Through Damage Maps
by Matheus Gregorio Kaminski, Paulo Henrique de Sá Aciole and Vanda Alice Garcia Zanoni
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010142 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 377
Abstract
The Sustainable Development Center of the University of Brasilia is one of the modernist buildings that make up the Darcy Ribeiro campus. The architectural project contains several recommendations for the execution of a flat roof waterproofing system, as well as details for rainwater [...] Read more.
The Sustainable Development Center of the University of Brasilia is one of the modernist buildings that make up the Darcy Ribeiro campus. The architectural project contains several recommendations for the execution of a flat roof waterproofing system, as well as details for rainwater runoff and drainage, which reveals the architect’s concern with watertightness. This research seeks to identify the relationship between the pathological manifestations recognized on the roof and the details of the semicircular shape of the building, assessing the state of conservation using damage maps as an auxiliary analysis tool. This study is based on a field survey using aerophotogrammetry with a drone, the application of vector drawing software for graphic representation and discussion of the possible causes, and the agents and mechanisms of degradation at work. The results show the importance of mechanical protection for the good performance of the waterproofing system, as well as the need for correct sizing of expansion joints to absorb and relieve the stresses caused by hygrothermal variations. The incorporated methodology proved to be effective and economical in diagnosing and monitoring pathological manifestations, making it possible to plan maintenance actions that extend the useful life and preserve the intrinsic characteristics of building systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the REHABEND 2024 Congress)
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27 pages, 10001 KiB  
Article
Influential Mechanisms of Roughness on the Cyclic Shearing Behavior of the Interfaces Between Crushed Mudstone and Steel-Cased Rock-Socketed Piles
by Yue Liang, Jianlu Zhang, Bin Xu, Zeyu Liu, Lei Dai and Kui Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010141 - 5 Jan 2025
Viewed by 488
Abstract
In the waterway construction projects of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, crushed mudstone particles are widely used to backfill the foundations of rock-socketed concrete-filled steel tube (RSCFST) piles, a structure widely adopted in port constructions. In these projects, the steel–mudstone interfaces [...] Read more.
In the waterway construction projects of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, crushed mudstone particles are widely used to backfill the foundations of rock-socketed concrete-filled steel tube (RSCFST) piles, a structure widely adopted in port constructions. In these projects, the steel–mudstone interfaces experience complex loading conditions, and the surface profile tends to vary within certain ranges during construction and operation. The changes in boundary conditions and material profile significantly impact the bearing performance of these piles when subjected to cyclic loads, such as ship impacts, water level fluctuations, and wave-induced loads. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the shear characteristics of the RSCFST pile–soil interface under cyclic vertical loading, particularly in relation to varying deformation levels in the steel casing’s outer profile. In this study, a series of cyclic direct shear tests are carried out to investigate the influential mechanisms of roughness on the cyclic behavior of RSCFST pile–soil interfaces. The impacts of roughness on shear stress, shear stiffness, damping ratio, normal stress, and particle breakage ratio are discussed separately and can be summarized as follows: (1) During the initial phase of cyclic shearing, increased roughness correlates with higher interfacial shear strength and anisotropy, but also exacerbates interfacial particle breakage. Consequently, the sample undergoes more significant shear contraction, leading to reduced interfacial shear strength and anisotropy in the later stages. (2) The damping ratio of the rough interface exhibits an initial increase followed by a decrease, while the smooth interface demonstrates the exact opposite trend. The variation in damping ratio characteristics corresponds to the transition from soil–structure to soil–soil interfacial shearing. (3) Shear contraction is more pronounced in rough interface samples compared to the smooth interface, indicating that particle breakage has a greater impact on soil shear contraction compared to densification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Mechanics Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction)
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19 pages, 11461 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Subsurface Geotechnical Data Integration for Sustainable Building Infrastructure
by Nauman Ijaz, Zain Ijaz, Nianqing Zhou, Zia ur Rehman, Hamdoon Ijaz, Aashan Ijaz and Muhammad Hamza
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010140 - 5 Jan 2025
Viewed by 556
Abstract
Sustainable building construction encounters challenges stemming from escalating expenses and time delays associated with geotechnical assessments. Developing and optimizing geotechnical soil maps (SMs) using existing data across heterogeneous geotechnical formations offer strategic and dynamic solutions. This strategic approach facilitates economical and prompt site [...] Read more.
Sustainable building construction encounters challenges stemming from escalating expenses and time delays associated with geotechnical assessments. Developing and optimizing geotechnical soil maps (SMs) using existing data across heterogeneous geotechnical formations offer strategic and dynamic solutions. This strategic approach facilitates economical and prompt site evaluations, and offers preliminary ground models, enhancing efficient and sustainable building foundation design. In this framework, this paper aimed to develop SMs for the first time in the rapidly growing district of Gujrat using the optimal interpolation technique (OIT). The subsurface conditions were evaluated using the standard penetration test (SPT) N-values and soil classification including seismic wave velocity to account for seismic effects. Among the different geostatistical and geospatial models, the inverse distance weighting (IDW) model based on an optimized spatial analyst approach yielded the minimum error and a higher association with the field data for the understudy region. Overall, the optimized IDW technique yielded root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and correlation coefficient (CC) ranges between 0.57 and 0.98. Furthermore, analytical depth-dependent models were developed using SPT-N values to assess the bearing capacity, demonstrating the association of R2 > 0.95. Moreover, the study area was divided into three geotechnical zones based on the average SPT-N values. Comprehensive validation of different strata evaluation based on the optimal IDW for the SPT-N and soil type-based SMs revealed that the RMSE and MAE ranged between 0.36–1.65 and 0.30–0.59, while the CC ranged between 0.93 and 0.98 at multiple depths. The allowable bearing capacity (ABC) for spread footings was determined by evaluating the shear, settlement, and seismic factors. The study offers insights into regional variations in geotechnical formations along with shallow foundation design guidelines for practitioners and researchers working with similar soil conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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20 pages, 15749 KiB  
Article
Study on the Vibration Propagation Law and Stress Distribution Characteristics in Double-Arch Tunnels During Blasting
by Xiaofei Sun, Ying Su, Dunwen Liu, Yu Tang, Pei Zhang, Jishuang Hu and Xianghao Sun
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010139 - 5 Jan 2025
Viewed by 462
Abstract
Highway tunnel construction in mountainous areas of China has been developing rapidly. The influence of drilling and blasting on the existing tunnel structure has become a key factor affecting the safety and stability of tunnel construction. The double-arch tunnel has unique structural characteristics. [...] Read more.
Highway tunnel construction in mountainous areas of China has been developing rapidly. The influence of drilling and blasting on the existing tunnel structure has become a key factor affecting the safety and stability of tunnel construction. The double-arch tunnel has unique structural characteristics. The propagation characteristics of blasting vibrations and the resulting stress responses exhibit a certain level of complexity. There is little research on the influence of single-line blasting excavation of double-arch tunnel on the other line tunnel. This paper analyzes the blasting vibration of a double-arch tunnel by ANSYS/LS-DYNA. The propagation law of blasting vibration velocity and stress distribution law of blasting vibration in different sections of the tunnel is revealed. At the same time, the relationship between the peak particle velocity (PPV) and tensile stress is established, and the threshold vibration velocity is proposed. It provides a scientific basis for tunnel design and construction. The propagation of blasting vibration in the adjacent roadway is affected by the middle pilot tunnel. The peak vibration velocity of different parts decreases with the increase in distance. The monitoring of vibration velocity and stress in section A of the right line of the adjacent tunnel should be strengthened, especially in the tunnel vault, blast-facing side wall, and arch foot. The difference in vibration strength across different tunnel parts provides a basis for optimizing the structure. It helps strengthen the parts susceptible to vibration during the design stage of the multi-arch tunnel, improving the tunnel’s safety and stability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamic Response of Civil Engineering Structures under Seismic Loads)
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22 pages, 5971 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Carbon Emission Analysis of Buildings with Different Exterior Wall Types Based on BIM Technology
by Yuelong Lyu, Nikita Igorevich Fomin, Shuailong Li, Wentao Hu, Shuoting Xiao, Yue Huang and Chong Liu
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010138 - 5 Jan 2025
Viewed by 489
Abstract
Building energy conservation and emission reduction are crucial in addressing global climate change. High-performance insulated building envelopes can significantly reduce energy consumption over a building’s lifecycle. However, few studies have systematically analyzed carbon reduction potential through a life cycle assessment (LCA), incorporating case [...] Read more.
Building energy conservation and emission reduction are crucial in addressing global climate change. High-performance insulated building envelopes can significantly reduce energy consumption over a building’s lifecycle. However, few studies have systematically analyzed carbon reduction potential through a life cycle assessment (LCA), incorporating case studies and regional differences. To address this, this study establishes an LCA carbon emission calculation model using Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology and the carbon emission coefficient method. We examined four residential buildings in China’s cold regions and hot summer–cold winter regions, utilizing prefabricated concrete sandwich insulation exterior walls (PCSB) and autoclaved aerated concrete block self-insulating exterior walls (AACB). Results indicate that emissions during the operational phase account for 75% of total lifecycle emissions, with heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems contributing over 50%. Compared to AACB, PCSB reduces lifecycle carbon emissions by 18.54% and by 20.02% in hot summer–cold winter regions. The findings demonstrate that PCSB offers significant energy-saving and emission-reduction benefits during the construction and operation phases. However, it exhibits higher energy consumption during the materialization and demolition phases. This study provides a practical LCA carbon calculation framework that offers insights into reducing lifecycle carbon emissions, thereby guiding sustainable building design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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23 pages, 9139 KiB  
Article
Experimental and Numerical Simulation Study on the Mechanical Properties of Integrated Sleeve Mortise and Tenon Steel–Wood Composite Joints
by Zhanguang Wang, Weihan Yang, Zhenyu Gao, Jianhua Shao and Dongmei Li
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010137 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 524
Abstract
In view of the application status and technical challenges of steel–wood composite joints in architecture, this paper proposes an innovative connection technology to solve issues such as susceptibility to pry-out at beam–column joints and low load-bearing capacity and to provide various reinforcement methods [...] Read more.
In view of the application status and technical challenges of steel–wood composite joints in architecture, this paper proposes an innovative connection technology to solve issues such as susceptibility to pry-out at beam–column joints and low load-bearing capacity and to provide various reinforcement methods in order to meet the different structural requirements and economic benefits. By designing and manufacturing four groups of beam–column joint specimens with different reinforcement methods, including no reinforcement, structural adhesive and angle steel reinforcement, 4 mm thick steel sleeve reinforcement, and 6 mm thick steel sleeve reinforcement, monotonic loading tests and finite element simulations were carried out, respectively. This research found that unreinforced specimens and structural adhesive angle steel-reinforced joints exhibited obvious mortise and tenon compression deformation and, moreover, tenon pulling phenomena at load values of approximately 2 kN and 2.6 kN, respectively. However, the joint reinforced by a steel sleeve showed a significant improvement in the tenon pulling phenomenon and demonstrated excellent initial stiffness characteristics. The failure mode of the steel sleeve-reinforced joints is primarily characterized by the propagation of cracks at the edges of the steel plate and the tearing of the wood, but the overall structure remains intact. The initial rotational stiffness of the joints reinforced with angle steel and self-tapping screws, the joints reinforced with 4 mm thick steel sleeves, and the joints reinforced with 6 mm thick steel sleeves are 3.96, 6.99, and 13.62 times that of the pure wooden joints, while the ultimate bending moments are 1.97, 7.11, and 7.39 times, respectively. Using finite element software to simulate four groups of joints to observe their stress changes, the areas with high stress in the joints without sleeve reinforcement are mainly located at the upper and lower ends of the tenon, where the compressive stress at the upper edge of the tenon and the tensile stress at the lower flange are both distributed along the grain direction of the beam. The stress on the column sleeve of the joints reinforced with steel sleeves and bolts is relatively low, while the areas with high strain in the beam sleeve are mainly concentrated on the side with the welded stiffeners and its surroundings; the strain around the bolt holes is also quite noticeable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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15 pages, 3346 KiB  
Article
Effects of Post-Fire Rehydration on the Mechanical Properties of Slag-Modified Concrete
by Guilherme Palla Teixeira, José Carlos Lopes Ribeiro, Leonardo Gonçalves Pedroti and Gustavo Henrique Nalon
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010136 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 560
Abstract
Although previous research has examined the mechanical properties of concrete exposed to high temperatures, further investigation is needed into the effects of post-fire curing on the recovery of strength and stiffness of sustainable concretes produced with slag-modified cement. This study conducted an experimental [...] Read more.
Although previous research has examined the mechanical properties of concrete exposed to high temperatures, further investigation is needed into the effects of post-fire curing on the recovery of strength and stiffness of sustainable concretes produced with slag-modified cement. This study conducted an experimental analysis of the residual compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of different types of concrete (20 MPa or 30 MPa) exposed to varying maximum temperature levels (200 °C, 400 °C, 600 °C, 800 °C) and post-fire treatments (with or without rehydration). The concrete specimens were produced using Portland cement CP II-E-32. The rehydration method involved one day of water curing, followed by 14 days of air curing. Statistical analyses revealed potential improvements in the mechanical properties of concretes produced with slag-modified cement due to rehydration processes after exposure to different temperatures levels. The highest values of the relative residual strength factor (Φc) were observed in specimens exposed to a maximum temperature of 600 °C, ranging from 0.862 to 0.905. The highest values of the relative residual elastic modulus factor (ψc) were verified for a maximum temperature of 200 °C, ranging from 0.720 to 0.778. The experimental results were compared with strength and stiffness predictions of design codes. The inclusion of slag in concrete reduced microcracking during the rehydration process due to the reduced amount of calcium hydroxide in the cementitious matrix, increasing the concrete’s relative residual strength and stiffness after post-fire curing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue To Improve Urban Resilience: Cleaner Materials and Technologies towards Sustainable and Green Construction of Buildings)
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25 pages, 7632 KiB  
Review
Solubility Characteristics and Microstructure of Bitumen: A Review
by Han Liu, Haibo Ding, Yanjun Qiu and Hinrich Grothe
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010135 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 432
Abstract
This is a comprehensive review of the significance of solubility theories, internal stability, and external compatibility within petroleum science and pavement engineering. The historical development and future trends of solubility methods in bitumen are discussed, emphasizing the importance of separating bitumen components based [...] Read more.
This is a comprehensive review of the significance of solubility theories, internal stability, and external compatibility within petroleum science and pavement engineering. The historical development and future trends of solubility methods in bitumen are discussed, emphasizing the importance of separating bitumen components based on solubility to establish a link with chemistry. The paper also highlights the development of solubility theories and various characterization tests for bitumen, as well as the distribution of functional groups of solvents and their parameters. Additionally, it explores the generation of solubility profiles for different types and aging states of bitumen based on solubility data and statistical correlation, and the use of stability diagrams to assess the internal stability of bitumen in different states. The potential for continued research in this field is emphasized to bridge the gap between fundamental chemistry and practical application, leading to improved formulations and enhanced performance of bitumen in various applications, ultimately resulting in more durable and stable pavement structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Technologies for Asphalt Pavement Materials and Structures)
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39 pages, 14159 KiB  
Article
Preventive Conservation of Vernacular Adobe Architecture at Seismic Risk: The Case Study of a World Heritage Historical City
by Neda Haji Sadeghi, Hamed Azizi-Bondarabadi and Mariana Correia
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010134 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 449
Abstract
Heritage is strengthened through proactive actions, known as preventive conservation, that are considered before earthquakes, rather than reactive actions addressed when the emergency situation occurs. Considering that there are several regions around the world with very active seismicity, conservation interventions should guarantee human [...] Read more.
Heritage is strengthened through proactive actions, known as preventive conservation, that are considered before earthquakes, rather than reactive actions addressed when the emergency situation occurs. Considering that there are several regions around the world with very active seismicity, conservation interventions should guarantee human safety and the improvement of the inhabitant’s living conditions while keeping alive the earthen fabric and adobe buildings, thus preserving the lives of the residents but also preserving cultural heritage in the face of earthquakes. The main aim of this paper is to define a comprehensive conservation procedure addressing the preventive conservation of vernacular adobe vaulted houses in Yazd, an Iranian World Heritage property, since 2017. The fundamental phases of this procedure, which this paper’s structure is based on, include introducing the case study and addressing the conservation objectives, the assessment of significance and value, the seismic criteria, the conservation strategies, seismic safety assessment, and decision-making on interventions. The comprehensive preventive conservation procedure presented in this paper was determined by relevant conservation criteria, which contributed to an adequate seismic-retrofitted intervention design. This conservation approach requires evaluation of the seismic performance and the buildings’ safety, through which the decision regarding intervention could be made. Accordingly, this research also dealt with the seismic safety assessment of an adobe building through numerical research work performed using the software HiStrA Ver.2022.1.6. Based on the numerical results, decisions on the need and on the extent of intervention techniques were addressed. In addition, a comparative study was performed on different seismic strengthening techniques available in the literature to define fundamental conservation criteria. In this way, there are more chances for human lives to be preserved if an earthquake occurs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century)
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32 pages, 4167 KiB  
Article
Ontology-Driven Mixture-of-Domain Documentation: A Backbone Approach Enabling Question Answering for Additive Construction
by Chao Li and Frank Petzold
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010133 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 316
Abstract
Advanced construction techniques, such as additive manufacturing (AM) and modular construction, offer promising solutions to address labor shortages, reduce CO2 emissions, and enhance material efficiency. Despite their potential, the adoption of these innovative methods is hindered by the construction industry’s fragmented expertise. [...] Read more.
Advanced construction techniques, such as additive manufacturing (AM) and modular construction, offer promising solutions to address labor shortages, reduce CO2 emissions, and enhance material efficiency. Despite their potential, the adoption of these innovative methods is hindered by the construction industry’s fragmented expertise. Building Information Modeling (BIM) is frequently suggested to integrate this diverse knowledge, but existing BIM-based approaches lack a robust framework for systematically documenting and retrieving the cross-domain knowledge essential for construction projects. To bridge this gap, this paper presents an ontology-driven methodology for documenting and utilizing expert knowledge, with a focus on AM in construction. Based on a well-founded ontological framework, a set of modular ontologies is formalized for individual domains. Additionally, a prototypical documentation tool is developed to elevate recorded information and BIM models as a knowledge graph. This knowledge graph will interface with advanced large language models (LLMs), enabling effective question answering and knowledge retrieval. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural Design Supported by Information Technology: 2nd Edition)
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24 pages, 5273 KiB  
Article
Design Optimization of an Innovative Instrumental Single-Sided Formwork Supporting System for Retaining Walls Using Physics-Constrained Generative Adversarial Network
by Wei Liu, Lin He, Jikai Liu, Xiangyang Xie, Ning Hao, Cheng Shen and Junyong Zhou
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010132 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 440
Abstract
Single-sided formwork supporting systems (SFSSs) play a crucial role in the urban construction of retaining walls using cast-in-place concrete. By supporting the formwork from one side, an SFSS can minimize its spatial footprint, enabling its closer placement to boundary lines without compromising structural [...] Read more.
Single-sided formwork supporting systems (SFSSs) play a crucial role in the urban construction of retaining walls using cast-in-place concrete. By supporting the formwork from one side, an SFSS can minimize its spatial footprint, enabling its closer placement to boundary lines without compromising structural integrity. However, existing SFSS designs struggle to achieve a balance between mechanical performance and lightweight construction. To address these limitations, an innovative instrumented SFSS was proposed. It is composed of a panel structure made of a panel, vertical braces, and cross braces and a supporting structure comprising an L-shaped frame, steel tubes, and anchor bolts. These components are conducive to modular manufacturing, lightweight installation, and convenient connections. To facilitate the optimal design of this instrumented SFSS, a physics-constrained generative adversarial network (PC-GAN) approach was proposed. This approach incorporates three objective functions: minimizing material usage, adhering to deformation criteria, and ensuring structural safety. An example application is presented to demonstrate the superiority of the instrumented SFSS and validate the proposed PC-GAN approach. The instrumented SFSS enables individual components to be easily and rapidly prefabricated, assembled, and disassembled, requiring only two workers for installation or removal without the need for additional hoisting equipment. The optimized instrumented SFSS, designed using the PC-GAN approach, achieves comparable deformation performance (from 2.49 mm to 2.48 mm in maxima) and slightly improved component stress levels (from 97 MPa to 115 MPa in maxima) while reducing the total weight by 20.85%, through optimizing panel thickness, the dimensions and spacings of vertical and lateral braces, and the spacings of steel tubes. This optimized design of the instrumented SFSS using PC-GAN shows better performance than the current scheme, combining significant weight reduction with enhanced mechanical efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Emerging Technologies for Structural Design, Inspection, and Maintenance)
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25 pages, 7882 KiB  
Article
The Anchorage Performance and Mechanism of Prefabricated Concrete Shear Walls with Closed-Loop Rebar
by Yufen Gao, Zheng Yang, Lu Chen, Shengzhao Cheng and Zhongshan Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010131 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 333
Abstract
To thoroughly investigate the anchorage performance of a novel prefabricated concrete shear wall system assembled by anchoring closed-loop rebar, rebar pull-out tests were conducted. The effects of different rebar distribution forms, closed-loop rebar anchoring heights, and dowel rebar diameters on anchorage performance were [...] Read more.
To thoroughly investigate the anchorage performance of a novel prefabricated concrete shear wall system assembled by anchoring closed-loop rebar, rebar pull-out tests were conducted. The effects of different rebar distribution forms, closed-loop rebar anchoring heights, and dowel rebar diameters on anchorage performance were considered. Strain measurements at key points were taken, and the failure modes and peak loads of shear walls with various closed-loop rebar assemblies were obtained. The results indicated that the rebars in all specimens fractured, with peak loads ranging from 90 kN to 100 kN, satisfying the anchorage requirements of the rebar. This demonstrates that even when the anchorage length of the rebar is less than specified, the method of assembling by anchoring closed-loop rebar can still provide good anchorage performance. Moreover, steel bars and concrete have different damage and failure characteristics under different load levels. This research also indicates that specimens with uniformly distributed closed-loop rebar exhibit superior anchorage performance compared to those with adjacent distribution. Furthermore, increasing the overlapping height of the closed-loop rebar contributed to enhancing the safety margin of the anchorage, while the diameter of the dowel rebar (similar to stirrups) had a relatively minor effect on the anchorage performance. These findings provide a scientific basis for the design and construction of prefabricated concrete shear walls with closed-loop rebar. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Structural Techniques for Prefabricated Modular Buildings)
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25 pages, 1490 KiB  
Review
Integrating Building Information Modelling into Construction Project Management Education in Australia: A Comprehensive Review of Industry Needs and Academic Gaps
by Xavier Papuraj, Nima Izadyar and Zora Vrcelj
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010130 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 611
Abstract
Integrating Building Information Modelling (BIM) into Construction Project Management (CPM) curricula is crucial for preparing industry-ready professionals with the digital competencies needed in the rapidly evolving, technology-driven construction sector. This systematic literature review evaluated gaps and challenges in BIM education within CPM courses, [...] Read more.
Integrating Building Information Modelling (BIM) into Construction Project Management (CPM) curricula is crucial for preparing industry-ready professionals with the digital competencies needed in the rapidly evolving, technology-driven construction sector. This systematic literature review evaluated gaps and challenges in BIM education within CPM courses, including limited faculty training, inconsistent curricula, and insufficient hands-on, interdisciplinary collaboration opportunities for students. These deficiencies hinder consistent BIM competency development among graduates, resulting in disparities in skill levels and readiness for industry demands. This study identified essential digital management skills and BIM competencies required for effective industry practice by examining global academic research. The findings revealed that despite advancing BIM adoption, significant gaps persist in its teaching, particularly the lack of collaborative education within project management disciplines, and need for enhanced collaboration between academia and the industry to bridge the skills gap. Industry professionals and academics emphasise the deficit in BIM knowledge among project management graduates and advocate for a cohesive educational framework aligning with industry requirements, emphasising hands-on experience and interdisciplinary collaboration. This study highlighted significant gaps and opportunities for integrating Building Information Modelling (BIM) into Construction Project Management (CPM) education, with the aim to enhance the competency and employability of future construction project managers. By proposing a phased approach and a BIM educational framework tailored to the Australian context, this review recommended the integration of BIM, supported by other emerging technologies, to better align educational outcomes with industry demands. The recommendations focus on curriculum design and implementation strategies to bridge the identified gaps. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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21 pages, 6143 KiB  
Article
Investigating the Construction Procedure and Safety Oversight of the Mechanical Shaft Technique: Insights Gained from the Guangzhou Intercity Railway Project
by Jianwang Li, Wenrui Qi, Xinlong Li, Gaoyu Liu, Jian Chen and Huawei Tong
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010129 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 387
Abstract
Currently, subway and underground engineering projects are vital for alleviating urban congestion and enhancing citizens’ quality of life. Among these, excavation engineering for foundation pits involves the most accidents in geotechnical engineering. Although there are various construction methods, most face issues such as [...] Read more.
Currently, subway and underground engineering projects are vital for alleviating urban congestion and enhancing citizens’ quality of life. Among these, excavation engineering for foundation pits involves the most accidents in geotechnical engineering. Although there are various construction methods, most face issues such as a large footprint, high investments, resource waste, and low mechanization. Addressing these, this paper focuses on a subway foundation pit project in Guangzhou using mechanical shaft sinking technology. Using intelligent cloud monitoring, we analyzed the stress–strain patterns of the cutting edge and segments. The results showed significant improvements in construction efficiency, cost reduction, safety, and resource conservation. Based on this work, this paper makes the following conclusions: (1) The mechanical shaft sinking method offers advantages such as small footprint, high mechanization, minimal environmental impact, and cost-effectiveness. The achievements include a 22.22% reduction in construction time, a 20.27% decrease in investment, and lower worker risk. (2) Monitoring confirmed that all cutting edge and segment values remained safe, demonstrating the method’s feasibility and rationality. (3) Analyzing shaft monitoring data and field uncertainties, this study proposes recommendations for future work, including precise segment lowering control and introducing high-precision total stations and GPS technology to mitigate tunneling and assembly inaccuracies. The research validates the mechanical shaft sinking scheme’s scientific and logical nature, ensuring safety and contributing to technological advancements. It offers practical insights, implementable suggestions, and significant economic benefits, reducing project investment by RMB 41,235,600. This sets a benchmark for subway excavation projects in South China and beyond, providing reliable reference values. Furthermore, the findings provide valuable insights and guidance for industry peers, enhancing overall efficiency and sustainable development in subway construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Foundation Engineering and Underground Structures)
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19 pages, 11406 KiB  
Article
A Novel Full-Tension Crossed Cable-Truss Structure: Feasible Design and Forming Method
by Chenhao Xu, Zhanyuan Gao, Suduo Xue, Renyuan Zhang and Xuanzhi Li
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010128 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 260
Abstract
In order to avoid the instability of compression support in annular space cable truss structures, a novel full-tension crossed cable-truss structure (FCCTS) is studied. Firstly, according to the geometric shape of cables, the distribution law of cable force in the pre-stressed state is [...] Read more.
In order to avoid the instability of compression support in annular space cable truss structures, a novel full-tension crossed cable-truss structure (FCCTS) is studied. Firstly, according to the geometric shape of cables, the distribution law of cable force in the pre-stressed state is deduced and analyzed by theory. According to the characteristics of the cable force of vertical cables being much smaller than that of upper and lower chord cables, a forming method of tensioning vertical cables, namely, the vertical cable-shortening method (VSM), is proposed. Corresponding node connection devices are also designed and tested. Subsequently, the VSM process for establishing tension is elaborated in detail, and its feasibility is numerically simulated and validated. The results clearly show that VSM can effectively establish the pre-stress state in FCCTS. The VSM has the advantage of low applied tension, making it easier to form structural tension. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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17 pages, 6133 KiB  
Article
A Campus Landscape Visual Evaluation Method Integrating PixScape and UAV Remote Sensing Images
by Lili Song and Moyu Wu
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010127 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 315
Abstract
Landscape, as an important component of environmental quality, is increasingly valued by scholars for its visual dimension. Unlike evaluating landscape visual quality through on-site observation or using digital photos, the landscape visualization modeling method supported by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) aerial photography, geographic [...] Read more.
Landscape, as an important component of environmental quality, is increasingly valued by scholars for its visual dimension. Unlike evaluating landscape visual quality through on-site observation or using digital photos, the landscape visualization modeling method supported by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) aerial photography, geographic information System (GIS), and PixScape has the advantage of systematically scanning landscape geographic space. The data acquisition is convenient and fast, and the resolution is high, providing a new attempt for landscape visualization analysis. In order to explore the application of visibility modeling based on high-resolution UAV remote sensing images in landscape visual evaluation, this study takes campus landscape as an example and uses high-resolution campus UAV remote sensing images as the basic data source to analyze the differences between the planar method and tangent method provided by PixScape 1.2 software in visual modeling. Six evaluation factors, including Naturalness (N), Normalized Shannon Diversity Index (S), Contagion (CONTAG), Shannon depth (SD), Depth Line (DL), and Skyline (SL), are selected to evaluate the landscape vision of four viewpoints in the campus based on analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method. The results indicate that the tangent method considers the visual impact of the vertical amplitude and the distance between landscape and viewpoints, which is more in line with the real visual perception of the human eyes. In addition, objective quantitative evaluation metrics based on visibility modeling can reflect the visual differences of landscapes from different viewpoints and have good applicability in campus landscape visual evaluation. It is expected that this research can enrich the method system of landscape visual evaluation and provide technical references for it. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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15 pages, 14665 KiB  
Article
Finite Element Model Updating Technique for Super High-Rise Building Based on Response Surface Method
by Yancan Wang, Dongfu Zhao and Hao Li
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010126 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 350
Abstract
To establish a finite element model that accurately represents the dynamic characteristics of actual super high-rise building and improve the accuracy of the finite element simulation results, a finite element model updating method for super high-rise building is proposed based on the response [...] Read more.
To establish a finite element model that accurately represents the dynamic characteristics of actual super high-rise building and improve the accuracy of the finite element simulation results, a finite element model updating method for super high-rise building is proposed based on the response surface method (RSM). Taking a 120 m super high-rise building as the research object, a refined initial finite element model is firstly established, and the elastic modulus and density of the main concrete and steel components in the model are set as the parameters to be updated. A significance analysis was conducted on 16 parameters to be updated including E1–E8, D1–D8, and the first 10 natural frequencies of the structure, and 6 updating parameters are ultimately selected. A sample set of updating parameters was generated using central composite design (CCD) and then applied to the finite element model for calculation. The response surface equations for the first ten natural frequencies were obtained through quadratic polynomial fitting, and the optimal solution of the objective function was determined using a genetic algorithm. The results of the engineering case study indicate that the errors in the first ten natural frequencies of the updated finite element model are all within 5%. The updated model accurately reflects the current situation of the super high-rise building and provides a basis for super high-rise building health monitoring, damage detection, and reliability assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Methodologies and Technologies in Structural Modelling, Identification and Monitoring of Existing Structures—2nd Edition)
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19 pages, 4499 KiB  
Article
A Framework for Informing Complete Street Planning: A Case Study in Brazil
by Ashiley Adelaide Rosa and Fernando Lima
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010125 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 354
Abstract
The concept of Complete Streets prompts a re-evaluation of the road design paradigm of the past century, which prioritized vehicles over human-centered use. It seeks to integrate land-use planning with urban mobility, focusing on a safer, more accessible allocation of street space that [...] Read more.
The concept of Complete Streets prompts a re-evaluation of the road design paradigm of the past century, which prioritized vehicles over human-centered use. It seeks to integrate land-use planning with urban mobility, focusing on a safer, more accessible allocation of street space that supports diverse transportation modes, stimulates local economic development, encourages active mobility, and reinforces place identity while recognizing each street’s unique purpose. However, Complete Streets have competing planning demands that vary according to their context and capacity to serve different functions and users. Identifying these priorities and street types is crucial for managing the trade-offs between functions according to each street’s role. This article presents a framework for assessing a street’s purpose and guiding interventions, focusing on the first two of the three key functions of Complete Streets: place, movement, and environment. The proposed framework is flexible and objective while allowing qualitative and subjective insights to be integrated. The preliminary results align with the empirical analysis of street segments, indicating the framework’s potential for diagnosing and evaluating street completeness. The developed experiment helped identify the framework’s limitations and its value as a tool for urban planning and design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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16 pages, 2950 KiB  
Article
An Optimization Study on Continuous Steel Box Girder Bridge Components
by Ang Wang, Ruiyuan Gao, Qingfeng Chen, Weizhun Jin, Pengfei Fang and Di Wu
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010124 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 305
Abstract
The steel box girder bridge is a structure composed of mutually vertical stiffening ribs (longitudinal ribs and transverse ribs) that carry the loads of vehicles. Since the external loads are usually complex and variable, the rational design of the bridge components is a [...] Read more.
The steel box girder bridge is a structure composed of mutually vertical stiffening ribs (longitudinal ribs and transverse ribs) that carry the loads of vehicles. Since the external loads are usually complex and variable, the rational design of the bridge components is a topic that deserves more attention. The purpose of this study is to explore the optimal range of some of the component design parameters, expecting to reduce costs while ensuring the stress-carrying capacity. A finite element model (FEM) based on ABAQUS was built and the results were verified by laboratory experiments. The varied thicknesses of the bridge deck, diaphragm, and U-rib were explored based on the validated FEM. The simulation results fit well with the experimental results, which proved that the FEM was quite reliable. The stress analysis results demonstrated an optimal range of 18–20 mm for bridge deck thickness, 14–16 mm for diaphragm thickness, and 8–10 mm for U-rib thickness. The present study holds significant reference value for the design and optimization of multiple steel box girder bridge components, which could further provide a theoretical foundation for related research in this field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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40 pages, 36659 KiB  
Review
A Review of the Application of Hemispherical Photography in Urban Outdoor Thermal Comfort Studies
by Lei Sima, Yisha Liu, Xiaowei Shang, Qi Yuan and Yunming Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010123 - 2 Jan 2025
Viewed by 384
Abstract
Thermal comfort studies are paramount in enhancing future urban living conditions, and hemispherical photography has emerged as a widely employed field measurement technique in outdoor thermal comfort research. This comprehensive review systematically analyzed 142 outdoor thermal comfort studies conducted over the past decade [...] Read more.
Thermal comfort studies are paramount in enhancing future urban living conditions, and hemispherical photography has emerged as a widely employed field measurement technique in outdoor thermal comfort research. This comprehensive review systematically analyzed 142 outdoor thermal comfort studies conducted over the past decade using hemispherical photography methods, revealing that its primary application lies in objectively describing environmental information and constructing associated indices. In contrast, the number of studies focusing on subjectively assessing environmental factors remains relatively low; however, it is rapidly increasing due to its demonstrated effectiveness and convenience compared to other methodologies within this domain. Overall, despite certain limitations, such as higher labor costs and limited temporal/spatial coverage when describing environmental information, hemispherical photography still retains its advantage of providing accurate data acquisition for outdoor thermal comfort research. In recent years, advancements in mobile measurement tools and techniques have enhanced the richness and versatility of acquired information while leveraging the image specificity inherent to hemispherical photography, which continues to play a pivotal role in subjective assessments related to human perception of outdoor thermal comfort. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Sustainability: Sustainable Housing and Communities)
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22 pages, 18898 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Building Standards in the Galapagos Islands: Definition, Simulation, and Implementation in Representative Living Labs
by Jorge Torres-Barriuso, Iñigo Lopez-Villamor, Aitziber Egusquiza, Antonio Garrido-Marijuan, Ander Romero-Amorrortu and Ziortza Egiluz
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010122 - 2 Jan 2025
Viewed by 340
Abstract
The Galapagos Islands are undeniably a highly attractive ecosystem for scientists worldwide. However, the energy efficiency and sustainability aspects of their building stock have not yet been studied in depth, which directly hinders the achievement of sustainability goals for the Archipelago, such as [...] Read more.
The Galapagos Islands are undeniably a highly attractive ecosystem for scientists worldwide. However, the energy efficiency and sustainability aspects of their building stock have not yet been studied in depth, which directly hinders the achievement of sustainability goals for the Archipelago, such as reducing resource consumption, minimizing emissions, and improving overall comfort in buildings. Addressing these issues is critical to preserving the islands’ unique ecosystem, as current construction practices are unsustainable and exacerbate environmental pressures, causing over-consumption of local resources and upsetting the delicate ecological balance that sustains this fragile environment. In line with the National Energy Efficiency Plan promoted by the Government of Ecuador for the Archipelago, this study provides transparent and reliable information and data on the building stock of the islands. This work quantifies the impact of buildings on the use of resources and analyses the potential savings of different strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Various representative typologies are established based on the collection of architectural, construction, and usage information. For each of these typologies, various energy models are developed to establish the baseline and to analyse the demand and comfort of the buildings under different renovation scenarios in order to validate the sustainable construction strategies to be implemented. Moreover, new standards are also defined in order to reduce energy and water consumption and increase indoor air quality and comfort in buildings. In an attempt to generate evidence and facilitate the replication and implementation of sustainable construction standards, three Living Labs (LLs) are created to validate different strategies and technological solutions in different locations, according to the defined standards: a school in Santa Cruz, a hotel in Isabela, and a residential building in San Cristóbal. The findings highlight the effectiveness of specific energy-saving strategies and water conservation measures validated through Living Labs implemented in different locations across the islands. Furthermore, the knowledge generated is transferred through local training of the agents of the construction chain and administration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the REHABEND 2024 Congress)
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34 pages, 19930 KiB  
Article
Effect of Boundary Conditions and Angles on the Compressive Performance of the Corner Element
by Bing Xu, Lang Wang, Qin Liu, Rui Wang, Bo Xu, Bing Kong and Dan Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010121 - 2 Jan 2025
Viewed by 314
Abstract
The corner element is the most basic constitutive element of multi-cellular thin-walled structures; however, scenarios for using relevant theories are limited. To improve this situation, this research investigated the effect of boundary conditions on the compression performance of corner elements with different angles. [...] Read more.
The corner element is the most basic constitutive element of multi-cellular thin-walled structures; however, scenarios for using relevant theories are limited. To improve this situation, this research investigated the effect of boundary conditions on the compression performance of corner elements with different angles. The deformation laws of corner elements were also explored. The approach was based on experiments and the finite element method. The result shows the outwardly extending plates on both sides yield first, the central twisted wire region then destabilizes and exits the working state, and the plate enters the post-buckling phase. A more relaxed boundary and larger angle can make it easier for the corner elements to trigger the symmetric deformation mode. Moreover, a mechanical model for simplified computation is proposed to predict the initial peak crushing force. The research can provide a reference for studying the compression performance of energy-absorbing elements in engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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19 pages, 12133 KiB  
Article
Deterioration of Concrete Under Simulated Acid Rain Conditions: Microstructure, Appearance, and Compressive Properties
by Lingxu Li, Norazura Muhamad Bunnori and Chee Ghuan Tan
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010120 - 2 Jan 2025
Viewed by 287
Abstract
The effects of acid rain corrosion on the properties of concrete are broadly understood. This study investigated the impact of varying corrosion conditions on the microstructure and mechanical properties of concrete, which has not received sufficient attention using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy [...] Read more.
The effects of acid rain corrosion on the properties of concrete are broadly understood. This study investigated the impact of varying corrosion conditions on the microstructure and mechanical properties of concrete, which has not received sufficient attention using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and compressive tests. In the laboratory, simulated acid rain solutions with pH levels of 0.0, 1.0, and 2.0 were prepared using sulfuric acid solution. A total of 13 sets of 39 concrete cubes each were immersed in these acid solutions for durations of 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. The findings clearly indicate that simulated acid rain corrosion significantly affects both the microstructure and mechanical properties of concrete. Acid alters the material composition of concrete and simultaneously increases the formation of pores within it. This not only changes the number, area, and perimeter of the pores but also affects their shape parameters, including circularity and fractal box-counting dimension. These pores typically measure less than 0.4 μm and include micro- and medium-sized pores, contributing to the more porous and structurally loose concrete matrix. As the duration of acid exposure and the concentration of the acid solution increase, there is noticeable decrease in compressive strength, accompanied by changes in the concrete structure. The rate of strength reduction varies from 6.05% to 37.90%. The corrosion process of acid solution on concrete is characterized by a gradual advancement of the corrosion front. However, this progression slows over time because as the corrosion depth increases, the penetration of the acid solution into deeper layers becomes limited, thereby reducing the rate of strength deterioration. The deterioration mechanism of concrete can be attributed to dissolution corrosion caused by H+ ions and expansion corrosion due to the coupling of SO42− ions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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