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Energies
Volume 18
Issue 3
10.3390/en18030622
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Review

The Future of Nuclear Energy: Key Chemical Aspects of Systems for Developing Generation III+, Generation IV, and Small Modular Reactors

by
Katarzyna Kiegiel
,
Dagmara Chmielewska-Śmietanko
,
Irena Herdzik-Koniecko
,
Agnieszka Miśkiewicz
,
Tomasz Smoliński
,
Marcin Rogowski
,
Albert Ntang
,
Nelson Kiprono Rotich
,
Krzysztof Madaj
and
Andrzej G. Chmielewski
*
Institute of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology, Dorodna 16, 03-195 Warsaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2025, 18(3), 622; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030622
Submission received: 29 November 2024 / Revised: 10 January 2025 / Accepted: 22 January 2025 / Published: 29 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Section B4: Nuclear Energy)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Nuclear power plants have the lowest life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions intensity and produce more electricity with less land use compared to any other low-carbon-emission-based energy source. There is growing global interest in Generation IV reactors and, at the same time, there is great interest in using small modular reactors. However, the development of new reactors introduces new engineering and chemical challenges critical to advancing nuclear energy safety, efficiency, and sustainability. For Generation III+ reactors, water chemistry control is essential to mitigate corrosion processes and manage radiolysis in the reactor’s primary circuit. Generation IV reactors, such as molten salt reactors (MSRs), face the challenge of handling and processing chemically aggressive coolants. Small modular reactor (SMR) technologies will have to address several drawbacks before the technology can reach technology readiness level 9 (TRL9). Issues related to the management of irradiated graphite from high-temperature reactors (HTR) must be addressed. Additionally, spent fuel processing, along with the disposal and storage of radioactive waste, should be integral to the development of new reactors. This paper presents the key chemical and engineering aspects related to the development of next-generation nuclear reactors and SMRs along with the challenges associated with them.
Keywords: chemistry; nuclear energy; nuclear fuel cycle; next-generation nuclear reactors; small modular reactors; radioactive waste management chemistry; nuclear energy; nuclear fuel cycle; next-generation nuclear reactors; small modular reactors; radioactive waste management

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MDPI and ACS Style

Kiegiel, K.; Chmielewska-Śmietanko, D.; Herdzik-Koniecko, I.; Miśkiewicz, A.; Smoliński, T.; Rogowski, M.; Ntang, A.; Rotich, N.K.; Madaj, K.; Chmielewski, A.G. The Future of Nuclear Energy: Key Chemical Aspects of Systems for Developing Generation III+, Generation IV, and Small Modular Reactors. Energies 2025, 18, 622. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030622

AMA Style

Kiegiel K, Chmielewska-Śmietanko D, Herdzik-Koniecko I, Miśkiewicz A, Smoliński T, Rogowski M, Ntang A, Rotich NK, Madaj K, Chmielewski AG. The Future of Nuclear Energy: Key Chemical Aspects of Systems for Developing Generation III+, Generation IV, and Small Modular Reactors. Energies. 2025; 18(3):622. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030622

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kiegiel, Katarzyna, Dagmara Chmielewska-Śmietanko, Irena Herdzik-Koniecko, Agnieszka Miśkiewicz, Tomasz Smoliński, Marcin Rogowski, Albert Ntang, Nelson Kiprono Rotich, Krzysztof Madaj, and Andrzej G. Chmielewski. 2025. "The Future of Nuclear Energy: Key Chemical Aspects of Systems for Developing Generation III+, Generation IV, and Small Modular Reactors" Energies 18, no. 3: 622. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030622

APA Style

Kiegiel, K., Chmielewska-Śmietanko, D., Herdzik-Koniecko, I., Miśkiewicz, A., Smoliński, T., Rogowski, M., Ntang, A., Rotich, N. K., Madaj, K., & Chmielewski, A. G. (2025). The Future of Nuclear Energy: Key Chemical Aspects of Systems for Developing Generation III+, Generation IV, and Small Modular Reactors. Energies, 18(3), 622. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030622

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