Chapter 9
Colleges and Universities

ENROLLMENT IN COLLEGE

The last half of the twentieth century saw a dramatic increase in the number of high school graduates going on to college. In 1960 only 45% of high school graduates enrolled in college; by 1999, 63% enrolled. Figure 9.1 shows the increase in enrollment at degree-granting colleges and universities by age from 1970 projected to 2013. The enrollment rates have fluctuated from year to year, but the trend has generally been upward and is expected to continue.

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) reports that in 2002 a high school diploma was the highest level of education obtained by nearly one-third (32.2%) of the population ages twenty-five and older; 17.8% had earned a bachelor's degree; 17.1% had completed some college; 15.9% were high school dropouts; 8.3% had an associate degree; 6.3% had a master's degree; 1.5% had a professional degree; and 1.2% had a doctoral degree. (See Figure 9.2.)

According to the NCES, in fall 2001 roughly 15.5 million students were enrolled in American colleges and universities, an increase of about 18.5% from the 13.1 million enrolled in 1988. In its middle set of projections, the NCES estimates that college enrollment will reach 18.2 million by 2013. (See Table 9.1.)

Between 1988 and 2001 full-time enrollment grew by 23% (from 7.4 million to 9.1 million) while part-time enrollment increased by 13% (from 5.6 million to 6.3 million). (See Table 9.1.) In 1970 about one-third (32%) of college students attended part-time. By 2001 more than two of every five students (41%) attended part-time. Increased female enrollment has also contributed to the growth in college enrollment. From 1988 to 2001 male enrollment increased by 13% (from six million to 6.8 million), but the number of females enrolled rose by 24% (from seven million to 8.7 million). (See Table 9.1.)

Tuition at most public degree-granting institutions is generally lower than tuition at private institutions. In 2001 far more students were enrolled in public institutions (11.9 million) than in private institutions (3.6 million). (See Table 9.1.)

Older Students

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, during the late 1980s enrollment of nontraditional students (those over thirty years of age) in degree-granting institutions increased faster than enrollment of students under age twenty-two; then between 1993 and 2003 enrollment of students under age twenty-two increased by 23%, while enrollment of people thirty and over increased by 2.5%. The NCES projects continued enrollment increases in degree-granting institutions at all age levels. Between 2002 and 2014, the NCES projects a 16% increase for students aged eighteen to twenty-four, while enrollment of students age thirty-five and older is expected to increase by about 5% (Projections of Education Statistics to 2014, National Center for Educational Statistics, http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2005/2005074.pdf).

Minority Enrollment

The enrollment of minority students (non-Hispanic African-Americans, Hispanics, Asians or Pacific Islanders, and Native Americans) in higher education has been rising steadily. Much of the increase can be traced to larger numbers of Hispanic and Asian or Pacific Islander students.

While white students still make up the large majority of college students, the trend is toward more racial and ethnic diversity on campuses. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 1976 white students made up 82.6% of higher education enrollment. In 2001 whites accounted for 67.6% of those attending college; African-Americans were 11.6%; Hispanics were 9.8%; Asians or Pacific Islanders were 6.4%; and Native Americans were 1%. (See Table 9.2.) Between 1976 and 2001 the number of white students grew by 19% and the number of African-American students by 79%. Other minority groups increased by even higher proportions: Native American enrollment more than doubled, while more than four times as many Hispanics and more than five times as many Asians/Pacific Islanders enrolled. Note that prior to 1995 data were collected for higher education institutions, and they were defined as agencies or associations that were recognized by the U.S. Department of Education. In 1996 the definition was changed slightly, to be four- and two-year degree-granting higher education institutions that participate in Title IV federal financial aid programs.

According to the NCES, in 2002 African-American students were more than twice as likely as Hispanic students to attend an institution where they made up at least 80% of the total enrollment. During fall 2002, 29% of students at degree-granting institutions were minorities. The proportion of minority enrollment was higher at two-year colleges (36%) than at doctoral institutions (24%). (See Figure 9.3.)

The NCES defines institutions as having low-minority enrollments if the proportion of minority students is 20% or less, and institutions as having high-minority enrollments if the proportion of minority students enrolled is 80% or more. In fall 2002 more minority students attended degree-granting institutions with low-minority enrollments than attended high-minority institutions (17% and 13%, respectively). Nearly one-third (31%) of minority students attended four-year degree-granting institutions with high-minority enrollments, while only 4% of minority students attended doctoral degree-granting institutions with high-minority enrollments. One-quarter attended doctoral institutions with low-minority enrollments. (See Figure 9.3.)

International Students

According to the Institute of International Education (IIE) in Open Doors 2005 (http://opendoors.iienetwork.org/?p=69736), 565,039 international students were enrolled at institutions of higher learning in the United States during the 2004–05 school year. This represented a decline of about 1.3% from the previous year's total of 572,509. About 14% of international students were from India (80,466); 11% from China (62,523); 9% from Korea (53,358); 7% from Japan (42,215); and 5% of international students were from Canada (28,140). Another 4.6% were from Taiwan (25,914), and 2.3% were from Mexico (13,063).

Open Doors 2005 also reported that California hosted the largest number of international students (75,032) in 2004–05 and that the University of Southern California, with 6,846 foreign students, had the largest international student population of any college or university in the United States. Business (18% of students) and engineering

(16%) were the leading areas of study for international students.

Studying Abroad

Many college students from the United States also participate in study abroad programs. According to research published in 2005 by the Institute of International Education (http://opendoors.iienetwork.org/), the number of U.S. students studying abroad had doubled since the early 1990s. The IIE estimated that in 2003–04 there were 191,321 American students studying abroad, which represented a 9.6% increase over the previous year (174,629) and the highest number ever. The IIE, in Open Doors 2005 (http://open-doors.iienetwork.org/?p=69702), further reported that the number of Americans studying abroad had surged 20% since 2000–01 and suggested that the increase might be due to a growing awareness among American students of the importance of gaining an international perspective. IIE president Allan E. Goodman noted, "Many U.S. campuses now include international education as part of their core educational mission, recognizing that increasing the global competence among the next generation is a national priority and an academic responsibility."

Countries with the largest numbers of Americans enrolled in institutions of higher learning during the 2003–04 school year included Britain (32,237), Italy (21,922), Spain (20,080), France (13,718), Australia (11,418), and Mexico (9,293). The largest number of American students abroad were studying the social sciences (43,258, or 22.6% of U.S. students abroad), followed by business (33,473, or 17.6%), and humanities (25,401, or 13.3%).

PERSISTENCE OF STUDENTS

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, more high school graduates are entering college, and more are eventually graduating. In 1972, 55% of high school graduates entered a postsecondary institution. By 1992 the number had jumped to 77%. Among the 1972 high school graduates who earned more than ten college credits (that is, they did not take one or two courses and drop out of college), 46% earned a bachelor's degree within 8.5 years of their high school graduation. For 1992 high school graduates, 67% had earned a bachelor's degree within 8.5 years of their high school graduation. (See Figure 9.4.) Another way to measure college success is to consider only students who earned at least some of the initial ten credits at a four-year institution, because this may signify that they intended to pursue a bachelor's degree as the goal.

SCHOOL SIZE

Most students go to large colleges and universities. Although about 40% of higher education institutions have enrollments that are under 1,000 students, enrollment at small institutions accounts for less than 5% of total college students in the United States. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, there are 169 higher education institutions that have enrollments over 20,000 students. In fall 2003 the schools with the largest enrollments were Miami-Dade Community College (54,926), the University of Texas at Austin (52,261), Ohio State University, Main Campus (49,676), University of Minnesota, Twin Cities (48,677), and University of Phoenix, Online (48,085).

ADULT EDUCATION

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2002–03, 68.5 million adults participated in work-related courses. The majority (51%) took classes provided by business or industry, and more than two-fifths (21%) took classes at a college, university, or vocational/technical school. Approximately two-fifths (19%) took classes that were provided by a government agency, and another 19% took classes that were offered by a professional or labor organization. Religious or community organizations provided the classes to 8% of the participants, and 6% of adults took them at an elementary or secondary school. (See Table 9.3.)

NUMBER OF SCHOOLS

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2002–03 there were 4,168 degree-granting institutions in the United States—1,712 public and 2,456 private. About 56% (2,324) were four-year institutions, and 44% (1,844) were two-year schools. While most four-year schools were private (1,713, compared to 611 public institutions), most two-year schools were public (1,101, compared to 743 private schools). (See Table 9.4.)

COLLEGES THAT SERVE SPECIFIC POPULATIONS

Women's Colleges

Women's colleges are colleges that identify themselves as having an institutional mission primarily related to promoting and expanding educational opportunities for women. Women's colleges were founded during the late nineteenth century in response to a need for advanced education for women at a time when most institutions of higher education admitted only men.

Most of the independent nonprofit women's colleges that developed at that time were located in the Northeast. As educational opportunities in the South during the nineteenth century were limited to whites, some higher education institutions for African-Americans were formed after the Civil War (1860–65). These institutions included a few colleges founded especially to serve African-American women, two of which still survive: Bennett College in Greensboro, North Carolina, and Spelman College in Atlanta, Georgia. These are the only African-American women's colleges in the United States today. Various states also developed public higher education institutions open to all women in the state. Three of these colleges still exist: Douglass College, a part of Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey; Texas Women's University (with branches in Denton, Dallas, and Houston); and the Mississippi University for Women in Columbus, Mississippi.

Currently there are about eighty women's colleges in the United States, down from 200 in 1960. The majority of women's colleges are private four-year institutions, most are independent nonprofit institutions or affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church, and are located in the Northeast. Women's colleges usually have smaller enrollments than other institutions of higher education.

Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) are accredited institutions of higher learning established before 1964, whose principal mission was to educate African-Americans. The first HBCU was Cheyney University in Pennsylvania, established in 1837, well before the Civil War. At that time, most African-Americans in the nation were still slaves, and the prevailing practice was to limit or prohibit their education.

Richard Humphreys, a Philadelphia Quaker, founded Cheyney University, which began as a high school and then became a college (Cheyney State College), awarding its first baccalaureate degree in the 1930s, almost 100 years after its founding. Two HBCUs were established in the 1850s: Lincoln University in Pennsylvania (1854) and Wilberforce College in Ohio (1856). Both of these colleges were founded by African-Americans to promote education among other African-Americans.

Another institution whose beginnings go back to the 1850s is now known as the University of the District of Columbia. Miner Normal School was started in 1851 by Myrtilla Miner as a school to train African-American women as teachers. In 1955 this institution united with Wilson Normal School to become D.C. Teachers College. In 1976 D.C. Teachers College, Federal City College, and Washington Technical Institute merged to form today's University of the District of Columbia.

Following the Civil War, educating freed slaves became a top priority of the federal government, the African-American community, and private philanthropic groups. Public support in the various states generally came in the form of land grants for school buildings. Many of the HBCUs founded during this time were religious schools, such as Edward Waters College in Florida (1866), Fisk University in Tennessee (1867), and Talladega College in Alabama (1867). Howard University in Washington, D.C., was also founded in 1867 by an act of the U.S. Congress. The university was established as a coeducational and multiracial private school.

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in fall 2002 there were 103 HBCUs in the United States; half (50%) were public institutions, and half (50%) were private nonprofit colleges. During fall 2001, almost 290,000 students were enrolled. Full-time students outnumbered part-time students by more than three to one. Women made up a majority (61%) of all students at these institutions. Most HBCU students were African-American—84% of the women and 80% of the men. (See Table 9.5.)

Hispanic Serving Institutions

Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs) are institutions that have a minimum of 25% Hispanic student enrollment. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2001 there were 334 HSIs in the United States. Total enrollment in 2000–01 at HSIs was 1.7 million students. Fewer than half (45%) were public institutions, less than one-quarter (23%) were private nonprofit colleges, and nearly one-third (32%) were private for-profit organizations.

Native American Colleges

Although Native American and tribal colleges and universities differ widely in their stages of development, they share some similarities. The governing boards of most are made up primarily of Native Americans and Alaska Natives, as are their student bodies. Located in twelve states, most of the tribal colleges are in isolated areas of the nation.

In 2000–01 there were twenty-nine tribal colleges, serving about 13,500 full- and part-time students. All were public institutions, and the enrollment was 467 students on average. One of the major thrusts of the Native American schools is to reinforce traditional cultures and pass them on to coming generations. Their curricula are primarily practical and geared to local needs. Many of them are strongly oriented toward community service.

Most funding for these schools has come from the federal government under the Tribally Controlled College or University Assistance Act (P.L. 95-471). The government pays Native American colleges about $3,000 for each Native American student, almost 40% less than what the average community college receives per student from federal, state, and local sources. Tribal colleges typically do not receive state support because they have been established by sovereign nations and are usually located on federal trust land.

Alliance for Equity in Higher Education

The Alliance for Equity in Higher Education is made up of the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities (HACU), the American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC), and the National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education (NAFEO). It is coordinated by the Institute for Higher Education Policy, a Washington, D.C.-based nonprofit education group. The Alliance represents more than 300 HSIs, HBCUs, other predominately African-American institutions, and tribal colleges and universities. These colleges educate 42% of all Hispanic students, 24% of African-American students, and 16% of Native American students. However, member institutions serve students of all races and ethnicities; nearly one-quarter of students at NAFEO institutions are non-African-American, more than half of students at HACU institutions are non-Hispanic, and almost two in five students at AIHEC institutions are non-Native American.

The Alliance member colleges provide greater access to low-income and underserved populations, striving to keep tuition affordable. These colleges tend to have higher student success rates among minority students than do traditional colleges.

TRENDS IN DEGREES

Trends in Enrollment by Degree Levels

The National Center for Education Statistics reports that undergraduate enrollment grew from 11.3 million in 1988 to 13.3 million in 2001, an 18% increase. In 2001 women outnumbered men; 56% of those enrolled were women. Enrollment is projected (by mid-range estimates) to reach about 15.6 million by 2013. (See Table 9.6.)

The NCES also notes that between 1988 and 2001 enrollment in graduate schools increased 27%, from 1.5 million to 1.9 million. By 2013 enrollment is projected to reach about 2.2 million, increasing about 17% from 2001.

More women (nearly 1.1 million) than men (791,000) were enrolled in graduate programs in 2001. (See Table 9.7.)

Enrollment in first-professional degree programs (medicine, law, dentistry, theology, and others) increased 18% between 1988 and 2001, from 267,000 to 316,000, according to the NCES. In 2001 more men (174,000) than women (142,000) were enrolled in first-professional degree programs. Proportionally, however, the enrollment of women increased from 37.4% in 1988 to 44.9% in 2001. Total enrollment is projected to be 390,000 by 2013, of which 46.6% will be women. (See Table 9.8.)

Trends in Degrees Conferred

According to the NCES in the Digest of Education Statistics 2003, the number of associate degrees conferred grew from 481,720 in 1990–91 to 595,133 in 2001–02, a 24% increase. During the same period, bachelor's degrees increased 18%, from 1,094,538 to 1,291,900; master's degrees rose 43%, from 337,168 to 482,118; first-professional degrees increased 12%, from 71,948 to 80,698; and doctoral degrees rose 12%, from 39,294 to 44,160. (See Table 9.9.)

The Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics reports that from 1980 to 2004 the percentage of adults earning a bachelor's degree or higher increased from 23% to 28%. Whites ages twenty-five to twenty-nine were more likely than African-Americans or Hispanics to have earned at least a bachelor's degree. In 2004 nearly one-third (32%) of whites, 18% of African-Americans, and 12% of Hispanics in this age group had earned a bachelor's degree or higher. (See Figure 9.5.)

Associate Degrees

In 2001–02, 595,133 students earned associate degrees. (See Table 9.9.) The NCES reports that public institutions accounted for 79% of all associate degrees in 2001–02. At public institutions conferring associate degrees, liberal arts/general studies, business management/administration, and health professions were the most popular areas of study. At private institutions business management/administration was the degree conferred most often, with engineering-related technology and computer and information sciences degrees also being popular. (See Table 9.10.)

Bachelor's Degrees

In 2001–02 students earned 1.3 million bachelor's degrees. Since 1981–82 more bachelor's degrees have been awarded to women than to men. Of the 1.3 million degrees awarded in 2001–02, women earned 742,084 or 57%. (See Table 9.9.) The largest numbers of degrees conferred at public and private institutions included business management/administration, social sciences and history, education, psychology, health and related sciences, and engineering. (See Table 9.10.)

Master's Degrees

The number of master's degrees awarded annually declined during the late 1970s and the early 1980s but began to rise again in the 1984–85 academic year. In 2001–02 the number reached 482,118. The proportion earned by women has steadily increased. In 1970–71 women earned 40% of all master's degrees; in 2001–02 the proportion rose to 57% and is projected to remain around this percentage or slightly higher through 2012–13. (See Table 9.9.) The fields with the greatest numbers of degrees awarded were education and business management/administration. (See Table 9.10.)

Doctoral Degrees

The number of doctorates conferred remained virtually unchanged, at around 33,000, throughout most of the 1970s and early 1980s. Between 1986–87 and 1997–98 the number increased to about 46,000, and it has declined slightly since then. In 2001–02 degrees conferred at this level totaled 44,160. (See Table 9.9.) Generally, men receiving doctoral degrees outnumbered women, but the number of women earning doctorates has more than doubled since the late 1970s. In 2001–02 women earned 46% of all doctoral degrees conferred. The NCES projects that through 2012–13 the proportion will remain about the same or increase slightly. (See Table 9.9.) The majority of doctorates earned in 2001–02 were in education and technical fields such as engineering, the biological/life sciences, and physical sciences/science technologies. (See Table 9.10.)

First-Professional Degrees

According to the NCES, 70,698 first-professional degrees were conferred in 2001–02. There have been large changes in the total number of first-professional degrees (dentistry, medicine, law, and others) awarded to women. There was an almost 700% increase from 1970–71 to 1980–81. (The increase for men during the same period was 49%.) By 2001–02 first-professional degrees earned by women had increased from the 1980–81 figures an additional 99%. Women still lagged behind men, however, earning 47% of all first-professional degrees in 2001–02. Yet this was a marked change from 1970–71, when only 6% of all first-professional degrees went to women. (See Table 9.9.) Women received 38% of dental degrees, 44% of medical degrees, and 48% of all law degrees in 2001–02. (See Table 9.11.)

FACULTY

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in fall 2001 nearly 3.1 million people were involved in operating the nation's colleges and universities.

About 2.1 million (69%) were professional staff, including executives, administrators, and instructors. Almost 31% (951,203) were nonprofessional, such as clerical or secretarial staff, paraprofessionals, and skilled staff, including building maintenance and groundskeepers. (See Table 9.12.)

In fall 2001 approximately 1.5 million men accounted for 47% of all employees at degree-granting institutions, according to the National Center for Education Statistics. The 1.1 million men employed in professional roles comprised more than half (52%) of the professional staff; 644,514 (58%) of the 1.1 million faculty members were men. (See Table 9.12.)

Race/Ethnicity

In 2001, 2.2 million non-Hispanic whites made up more than 72% of all employees at degree-granting institutions. Non-Hispanic African-Americans (309,252) accounted for about 10% of employees; Hispanics (157,128) comprised 5%; Asians or Pacific Islanders (148,945) were 5%; and Native Americans (18,423) made up less than 1%. Nonresident aliens (135,026) made up about 4%. (See Table 9.12.)

Salaries

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, average faculty salary decreased during the late 1970s and then recovered during the late 1980s. It remained relatively stable for the next decade and then increased again, starting in the late 1990s. In 1977–78 the average salary for full-time faculty (expressed in 2002–03 dollars) was $57,000, and in 2002–03 it had increased to $62,800. With all benefits included, the average faculty salary was $66,600 in 1977–78 and $78,300 in 2002–03. In 2002–03 the average salary of a full professor was $86,100. For associate and assistant professors, the average salaries were $62,800 and $52,800, respectively, while instructors earned an average of $47,300 and lecturers earned $43,700. (See Table 9.13.)

THE COST OF HIGHER EDUCATION

According to the U.S. Department of Education in The Condition of Education 2005, public two- and four-year degree-granting institutions took in $138 billion in education and general revenue in 2000–01. Federal, state, and local governments provided 46% of that sum ($64 billion); tuition and fees at public institutions accounted for 23% ($32 billion) of income; and donations, endowments, and government contracts produced another 30% ($42 billion) in 2000–01. Combined spending on post-secondary institutions from both public and private sources averaged $20,358 per student in the United States in 2000, the highest dollar amount in a survey of the thirty countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (See Table 2.8 in Chapter 2.) This figure was up 6% from the $19,220 per student spent in 1999 in the United States, according to the U.S. Department of Education.