handwriting

handwriting, writing with the hand as distinguished from print. The term handwriting has come to be more or less restricted to mean the form of writing peculiar to each person.

Before the introduction of the typewriter for general use, when handwriting had a greater utilitarian value, schools stressed handwriting instruction. Scales were developed for gauging the quality of the script from grade to grade in the elementary schools, and a series of careful investigations of the handwriting movements were undertaken. Studies showed that the pressure on the penholder (grip pressure) as well as the pressure of the pen point on the paper (point pressure) varies continuously during writing, and the speed of writing is not uniform but depends upon the type of stroke being made. For example, speed of movement usually rises slowly as the stroke begins, comes to a maximum in the middle, and drops off toward the end. The direction of the stroke, turns and loops, the complexity of the stroke, and the type of stroke that preceded will alter the speed of a given writing movement. Speed is affected also by length of letter elements, since it usually takes more time to make long strokes than to make short ones. By comparing the handwriting movements of good and poor writers, researchers found that these two groups differ in position of writing hand, speed, and types of movements in fingers and hand. A considerable relationship was found to exist between the changes in speed and the form of letters, and good writers showed greater uniformity in the speed of formation of similar strokes. Later, other educators, experimenting with manuscript writing and printed script, maintained that the latter type of handwriting is learned and executed more speedily because it resembles printed type more.

The handwriting of adults is so individual that it is considered unlikely that any two people could really write identically. This high degree of individualization occurs even among those who learned to write from the same school and under the same teacher. Investigations into the handwriting characteristics of children have indicated that individualization in graphomotor development begins very early in life. The scribblings of the preschool child as well as the early versions of the child’s copy work are often found to show individual characteristics sufficient to identify the author of a handwriting specimen.

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calligraphy: Early Semitic writing

Among the anomalies of early writing development is mirror writing—that is, reversed script which reads from right to left and is seen as ordinary writing only when reflected from a mirror. Reversal of individual letters to some degree is part of normal spatial and motor development in children, but students of the subject disagree on the physiological processes involved in mirror writing. Most agree that it is the left-handed child’s natural form of writing; these children however, tend to conform to the school standard as they gradually assimilate the conventional left-right direction. Brain injuries may result in partial or total mirror writing, which in these instances is considered a regression to the earlier reversal state. The most famous instance of mirror writing is that of Leonardo da Vinci who allegedly did it to keep his scientific work secret.

Handwriting identification

Identification of handwriting assumes great importance in courts of law when the authenticity of signature is contested. Even when the handwriting itself is not to be doubted, the conditions under which it was written sometimes become of great moment. Such questions as whether the writer’s hand was forced or guided and whether alterations were introduced after the completion of the document often have to be answered by the expert. One of the first steps in the investigation of a suspected or disputed writing is to find some genuine writing of the disputed author with which to make a comparison. The writing characteristics which experts use in determining authenticity presuppose that each handwriting has certain permanent characteristic features from which the available handwriting sample may vary, and the question is whether the observed variation is within expected limits or beyond them. Many ingenious methods have been developed to determine the authenticity of a given piece of writing: comparison of dates with age of paper, determining whether writing at the creases preceded or followed the creasing, and chemical and physical examination of the paper and the ink to determine its origin, date of manufacture, and date of writing. The presence of tremors, types of final strokes for ending words, and other characteristics of handwriting are also utilized by handwriting experts for identification purposes. However, handwriting experts usually limit themselves to questions of identification only and do not embark on the kind of speculative personality analysis seen in graphology.

Teaching handwriting

Teaching handwriting is one of the basic tasks of the elementary grades in all school systems. The form of instruction differs according to the nature of language script, the system of instruction, and the availability of writing materials and instruments. Where Roman-type letters are in use, instruction tends toward the use of whole words. Many countries have adopted simplified forms of writing to help children overcome difficulties in beginning instruction. In countries using an alphabetic language, the simplified form is called variously script, printscript, or manuscript writing. Most children are expected to have some skill in handwriting by the age of eight or nine. In the United States, children then traditionally progressed from manuscript to cursive (slanted, connected, with special letter forms) writing, although changing educational standards in the 21st century led to a dramatic decline in cursive instruction. The handwriting scripts commonly taught to British children, after the initial experience with manuscript writing, include the Vere Foster “civil service” script, Marion Richardson’s script, and the so-called italic script.

Teachers generally emphasize correctness of letter formation, neatness of writing, uniformity of letters, spacing of letters and words, alignment of words and sentences, and speed of writing. Instruction begins with drawing or tracing of letter forms or words and moves to more rapid writing of words as skill is gained. Speed is not emphasized early in instruction, however. Greatest attention is paid to proper body and paper position, less attention to wrist and least to proper arm movements. Many devices are used in teaching handwriting—copying from letter form models, exercises and drills in drawing lines or circles, tracing of letter forms with stylus or pencil—as well as procedures that emphasize rhythm (counting or music). Ordinarily, lowercase letters are introduced first, then uppercase. Failure to close letters, closing looped strokes, looping nonlooped strokes, and straight rather than rounded strokes are the major causes for poor letter forms.

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