geoengineering

geoengineering, the large-scale manipulation of a specific process central to controlling Earth’s climate for the purpose of obtaining a specific benefit. Global climate is controlled by the amount of solar radiation received by Earth and also by the fate of this energy within the Earth system—that is, how much is absorbed by Earth’s surface and how much is reflected or reradiated back into space. The reflectance of solar radiation is controlled by several mechanisms, including Earth’s surface albedo and cloud coverage and the presence in the atmosphere of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂). If geoengineering proposals are to influence global climate in any meaningful way, they must intentionally alter the relative influence of one of these controlling mechanisms.

Geoengineering proposals were first developed in the middle of the 20th century. Relying on technologies developed during World War II, such proposals were designed to alter weather systems in order to obtain more favourable climate conditions on a regional scale. One of the earliest techniques is cloud seeding, a weather-modification process that attempts to bring rain to parched farmland by dispersing particles of silver iodide or solid carbon dioxide into rain-bearing clouds. Cloud seeding has also been used in attempts to weaken tropical storms. By the 21st century, however, cloud seeding as a true form of geoengineering, as well as weather modification in general, had become a matter of debate, since the scale upon which cloud seeding operates is small (and not at the planetary scale) and that it does not seek to reverse the effects of human-driven climate change. In addition, the U.S. military suggested that nuclear weapons might be used as tools to alter regional climates and make certain areas of the world more favourable for human habitation. This proposal, however, was not tested.

Present-day geoengineering proposals have focused on the global scale, particularly as evidence has mounted of increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and thus the prospect of global warming. Two fundamentally different approaches to the problem of global climate change have arisen. The first approach proposes the use of technologies that would increase the reflectance of incoming solar radiation, thus reducing the heating effect of sunlight upon Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. However, altering Earth’s heat budget by reflecting more sunlight back into space might offset rising temperatures but would do nothing to counter the rising concentration of CO₂ in Earth’s atmosphere. The second geoengineering approach focuses on this problem, proposing to remove CO₂ from the air and store it in areas where it cannot interact with Earth’s atmosphere. This approach is more appealing than the first because it has the potential to counteract both rising temperatures and rising carbon dioxide levels. In addition, reducing CO₂ in the air could address the problem of ocean acidification. Vast amounts of atmospheric CO₂ are taken up by the oceans and mixed with seawater to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃). As the amount of carbonic acid rises in the ocean, it lowers the pH of seawater. Such ocean acidification could result in damage to coral reefs and other calcareous organisms such as sea urchins. Reducing the concentration of CO₂ would slow and perhaps eventually halt the production of carbonic acid, which in turn would reduce ocean acidification.

To some scientists, global-scale geoengineering proposals border on science fiction. Geoengineering is also controversial because it aims to modify global climate—a phenomenon that is not yet fully understood and cannot be altered without risk. In the popular press there have been reports that view geoengineering as the final option to thwart climate change if all other measures to reduce CO₂ emissions fail in the coming decades. Several studies advocate that rigorous testing should precede the implementation of any geoengineering proposal so that unintended consequences would be avoided. Each proposal described below would differ from the others in its potential efficiency, complexity, cost, safety considerations, and unknown effects on the planet, and all of them should be thoroughly evaluated before being implemented. Despite this, no proposed scheme has been purposefully tested, even as a small-scale pilot study, and hence the efficiency, cost, safety, or timescale of any scheme has never been evaluated.

Proposals to increase solar reflectance

Geoengineering schemes that could increase the reflectance of incoming solar radiation include raising ground-level albedo, injecting sulfur particles into the stratosphere, whitening marine clouds, and delivering millions of tiny orbital mirrors or sunshades into space. It is important to note that a great deal of debate surrounds each of these schemes, and the feasibility of each is difficult to ascertain. Clearly, their deployment at global scales would be difficult and expensive, and small-scale trials would reveal little about their potential effectiveness.

Stratospheric sulfur injection

The formation of an aerosol layer of sulfur in the stratosphere would increase the scattering of incoming solar radiation. As more radiation is scattered in the stratosphere by aerosols, less would be absorbed by the troposphere, the lower level of the atmosphere where weather primarily occurs. Proponents believe that sulfur injection essentially would mimic the atmospheric effects that follow volcanic eruptions. The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, often cited as the inspiration of this proposal, deposited massive amounts of particulate matter and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) into the atmosphere. This aerosol layer was reported to have lowered average temperatures around the world by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) over the following few years. To produce an artificial aerosol layer, sulfur particles would be shot into the stratosphere by cannons or dispersed from balloons or other aircraft.

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