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About one-third of Switzerland’s land is devoted to agricultural production (grains, fodder, vegetables, fruits, and vineyards) and pasture. Some of the pastureland is used exclusively for mountain pasture, including the Monte Rosa region. The variation in soil quality within small areas in Switzerland, produced by geologic conditions and by the relief, makes large-scale single-crop farming difficult; instead, a particularly varied assortment of crops are grown in a limited space. About two-thirds of all farms combine grass and grain cultivation, and the latter satisfies nearly four-fifths of domestic demand.

On the western Mittelland a considerable grain-producing area has developed on the sheltered side of the Jura Mountains, an area of scanty rainfall, while in the more humid eastern region, mainly in the cantons of Thurgau and Sankt Gallen, fodder cultivation is combined with fruit growing. Until recently the highest Alpine grainfields, which have fallen victim to the decline in Alpine agriculture, lay above Zermatt at an elevation of 6,900 feet (2,100 metres). In Ticino, the southernmost canton, a mixed Mediterranean agriculture has been attained, although it has been endangered by urbanization. Viticulture characterizes slopes along many lakes, including Geneva, Neuchâtel, and Biel.

With its abundant sunshine and irrigation, the Valais, especially in the Rhône valley between Martigny and Sion, is noted for cultivating berries and other fruits and vegetables. The Valais also has the largest area of vineyards of any canton and the highest vineyard of central Europe, located near Visperterminen at an elevation of 3,900 feet (1,200 metres). Switzerland’s largest vineyards are on the southern-exposed shore of Lake Geneva, on the sun-facing slopes of the Rhône valley, along Lakes Neuchâtel and Biel at the foot of the Jura, and in the northern Alpine valley of the Rhine, which is affected by the foehn.

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Practiced throughout the country but especially prominent in the Mittelland and pre-Alps, cattle raising is Switzerland’s primary agricultural pursuit, yielding products exported throughout Europe. The income from dairying and cattle raising amounts to more than two-thirds of all agricultural value. Products include milk, butter, cheese, yogurt, and milk for chocolate.

As a consequence of Switzerland’s economic isolation in World War II, the government provided significant subsidies for agriculture, including direct market interventions and price guarantees, to maintain a high level of domestic production. Owing to trade-liberalization policies enacted in the 1990s, however, Switzerland has modified its agricultural support system, replacing these policies with direct payments to the farmers as compensation for services in the public interest.

Since the importance of forests for the ecology of large areas was recognized early, an exemplary forestation law forbids reduction of woodlands, which amount to about one-third of the total area of the country. Forests are vital for watershed functions, support wildlife, are a source of mushrooms, protect against avalanches, and function as recreational areas near cities such as Zürich as well as in the mountains. Furthermore, a small forestry industry that practices selective cutting supplements the income of owners of the land. Because of air pollution, some one-fifth of the country’s forests were classified as severely damaged in the late 20th century. Reforestation efforts helped restore some of these areas, but climate change threatened the viability of entire species at lower elevations. Rising temperatures dried forest soil and inhibited the resin-producing ability of spruce trees, making them vulnerable to the destructive spruce beetle. Environmental planners struggled to design forests that would reach maturity in an entirely different climate than the one in which they had been planted.

Resources and power

Although Switzerland has few natural resources (salt is the only mined resource) and lacks indigenous hydrocarbons to power its industries, high precipitation in the Alps, glaciated U-shaped valleys, the storage of glacial meltwaters behind giant dams, and the great range of elevations provide an ideal environment for the generation of hydroelectric power. The electrical industry has become an essential branch of the country’s economy, with nearly 45 reservoirs and a few hundred large hydroelectric power plants in operation. Numerous low-pressure plants are situated on the lower courses of the rivers in the Mittelland. Major electrotechnical progress has occurred in the Alps, where large systems of tunnels and subterranean powerhouses have been constructed in suitable valleys. Two of the highest dams in Europe have been erected high in the tributary valleys of the Rhône in Valais: Mauvoisin is 777 feet (237 metres) high, and Grande Dixence, at 935 feet (285 metres), has by far the largest-capacity reservoir in the country.

Valais is the most important producer of hydroelectricity in Switzerland, with nearly one-third of installed capacity. It is also a major consumer because of the aluminum plants located in the valley of the Rhône. By the late 20th century, nearly all of the hydroelectric energy worth harnessing for power plants was being utilized. Overall, about three-fifths of Switzerland’s domestic energy production is provided by hydroelectricity, while more than one-third is furnished by nuclear plants. The country’s energy needs are also met by imported oil, which accounts for about half of Switzerland’s total energy consumption; nuclear and hydroelectric power represent about one-fourth and one-sixth of energy consumption, respectively.

Manufacturing

Switzerland’s transformation into an industrial state began during the second half of the 19th century. The survival of Swiss industry is based on a formula that has worked very well: build specialized products such as motors, turbines, and watches; guarantee the delivery date; offer the necessary financing through an efficient banking network; provide effective after-sales service; sell the product all over the world and thus achieve economies of scale; and, where necessary, build local factories. The chemical-pharmaceutical industry, including the firms of Novartis, Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Clariant, and Roche Holdings (all with headquarters in Basel), is a good example of Swiss competitiveness. Like many Swiss industries, the chemical-pharmaceutical industry spends large sums of money on research and development. A number of firms collaborate with the country’s universities and with the Federal Institutes of Technology in Zürich and Lausanne.

Because of the single European market and world competition, Switzerland’s manufacturing sector underwent major restructuring in the 1990s that included mergers, the international expansion of Swiss firms, the sale of Swiss companies to foreign firms, the closing of low-value-added types of activity, and the upgrading of technology-based activities. Despite the trend toward larger companies, Swiss manufacturing is still characterized by diversity. Most firms are small or medium-sized; they are located throughout the country but especially in the Mittelland.