Among the exiles both in the United States and in Britain, the Fenian movement spread widely. A secret revolutionary society named for the Fianna, an Irish armed force of legendary times, it aimed at securing Ireland’s independence by exploiting every opportunity to injure British interests and, ultimately, to break the British connection.

In Ireland, Fenian ideals were propagated in the newspaper The Irish People, and in 1865 four Fenian leaders—Charles Joseph Kickham, John O’Leary, Thomas Clarke Luby, and Jeremiah O’Donovan Rossa—were sentenced to long-term imprisonment for publishing treasonable documents. During the next two years, plans gradually developed for a projected nationwide rising, financed largely by funds collected in the United States. It took place in March 1867 but was easily crushed and its leaders imprisoned. The prime minister, William Ewart Gladstone, at last recognizing the necessity for drastic Irish reforms, disestablished the Protestant Church of Ireland in 1869 and in 1870 introduced the first Irish Land Act, which conceded the principles of secure tenure and compensation for improvements made to property.

The Home Rule movement and the Land League

In 1870 a constitutional movement seeking domestic self-government, the Home Government Association (Home Rule League), was founded by Isaac Butt, a prominent unionist lawyer interested in land reform. In the election of 1874, it returned about 60 members to Parliament. The movement was tolerated rather than encouraged by the various groups of Irish nationalists, and it was not fully supported by the Roman Catholic clergy until the 1880s.

A return of bad harvests in 1879 brought new fears of famine. That same year, Michael Davitt founded the Irish Land League, seeking to achieve for tenants security of tenure, fair rents, and freedom to sell property. A formidable agrarian agitation developed when Davitt joined forces with Charles Stewart Parnell, a young Protestant landowner and member of Parliament in the Home Rule Party, which soon elected him as its leader in place of Butt. Parnell undertook a tour of North America to raise funds for the Land League. There he was influenced by two Irish Americans: John Devoy, a leading member of Clan na Gael, an effective American Fenian organization, and Patrick Ford, whose New York paper The Irish World preached militant republicanism and hatred of England. At Westminster Parnell adopted a policy of persistent obstruction, which compelled attention to Irish needs by bringing parliamentary business to a standstill. Gladstone was forced to introduce his Land Act of 1881, conceding fixity of tenure, fair rents, and free sale of the tenant’s interest.

Parnell’s success was not achieved without serious difficulties, including the ultimate proscription of the Land League by the government and the imprisonment of its leaders. As a result, Parnell used his parliamentary party, then increased to 86 seats, to overthrow Gladstone’s Liberal government. But the disclosure of Gladstone’s conversion to Home Rule—after the 1885 general election had given Parnell’s party control of the balance of power in the House of Commons—signaled the greatest change in the political landscape since 1800. The bipartisan consensus between British political parties on the indissolubility of the constitutional relationship between the two islands, explicitly declared irrevocable under the terms of the Act of Union, collapsed. When Lord Salisbury’s short-lived Conservative government rejected Gladstone’s proposal for a new bipartisan settlement of the Irish question in January 1886, the Act of Union became the most divisive issue in British politics. Although Gladstone’s first Home Rule Bill of 1886 split his party and was defeated by an alliance of Conservative and Liberal unionists in the House of Commons, that divide remained until the outbreak of World War I in 1914.

There followed 20 years when the aspirations of Irish constitutional nationalists were frustrated, partly because the Conservatives (now called the Conservative and Unionist Party) were mainly in power and partly because the Home Rule Party split after Parnell’s involvement (1889) in a divorce suit. The split was prompted by pressure from Gladstone and from the Irish Catholic bishops for Parnell to relinquish his party leadership. Meanwhile, Gladstone’s second Home Rule Bill (1893) was rejected in the House of Lords, where the Conservatives enjoyed a permanent majority. Only in 1900 was a Parnellite, John Redmond, able to reunite the party. In the last years of the century, partly in reaction to political frustrations, a cultural nationalist movement developed, led by Douglas Hyde and Eoin MacNeill. Through the Gaelic League (founded in 1893) much was done to revive interest in the speaking and study of Irish. These cultural movements were reinforced by a radical nationalist party, Sinn Féin (“We Ourselves”), founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith, who preached a doctrine of political self-help. It subsequently emerged that a Fenian organization, the Irish Republican Brotherhood, had revived and was secretly recruiting membership through various cultural societies and through the Gaelic Athletic Association, founded in 1884 to promote specifically Irish sports.

At the close of the century, the Conservatives initiated a policy designed to “kill Home Rule by kindness” by introducing constructive reforms in Ireland. Their most important achievement was the Land Purchase Act of 1903, which initiated the greatest social revolution in Ireland since the 17th century. By providing generous inducements to landlords to sell their estates, the act effected by government mediation the transfer of landownership to the occupying tenants.