Cuban Revolution

U.S. rule and the creation of the Cuban Republic

As a result of the Spanish-American War, control of Cuba passed from Spain to the United States on January 1, 1899, and it was governed by direct U.S. military administration until May 20, 1902. During these years, Cubans filled more public offices than they had under Spanish rule, and much was done for public works, sanitation, and education. Most notable of all, yellow fever was eradicated where it had been endemic for centuries.

A constitutional convention met at Havana from November 5, 1900, to February 21, 1901. The constitution that was adopted contained certain provisions known as the Platt Amendment; these were imposed by the U.S. as a condition for accepting the constitution and were approved by Cuba on June 12, 1901. By these provisions Cuba promised not to incur debts its current revenues could not bear, to continue the sanitary administration undertaken by the U.S. military government, to lease naval stations to the U.S., and, if necessary, to permit the U.S. to intervene in order to preserve Cuban independence and a government adequate to protect life and property.

In May 1902 Tomás Estrada Palma became the first president of the new republic, and material prosperity came to certain segments of the Cuban population. This was due to a reciprocal trade treaty, requested by the outgoing U.S. authorities, that permitted more Cuban sugar to enter the U.S. Sugar exports would dominate the Cuban economy throughout the first half of the 20th century, and the U.S. was Cuba’s chief trading partner.

Independence, instability, and continued U.S. intervention

Estrada Palma’s administration attempted to implement progressive measures, but it was plagued by instability. His party, the Conservatives (later known as the Moderates), emerged victorious in the elections of December 1905, but the opposition Liberals accused the government of rigging the vote. This charge, along with widespread pension fraud and the failure to bring about proposed governmental reforms, triggered a revolution in July 1906. The insurrection spread rapidly, and Estrada Palma requested intervention by the U.S., which sent commissioners to mediate. The mediation failed, Estrada Palma resigned, and on September 29, 1906, U.S. Pres. Theodore Roosevelt named his secretary of war, William Howard Taft, governor of Cuba. Taft proclaimed that he would lead a provisional government to last “long enough to restore order and peace and public confidence.” Government was maintained under the Cuban flag, regular constitutional forms remained outwardly unchanged, and the insurrectionists promptly disbanded. U.S. administration ceased on January 28, 1909, and the republic was inaugurated a second time. U.S. troops were withdrawn on April 1, 1909.

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World Wars

Three presidents governed Cuba from 1909 to 1925 with little distinction and much corruption. They were José Miguel Gómez (1909–13), Mario García Menocal (1913–21), and Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso (1921–25). During this period the U.S. interfered twice in Cuba and threatened to intervene several more times. During the Gómez administration the country prospered, but charges of corruption in the government rose. The government was accused of giving few offices to Afro-Cubans and also of favouring those who had supported the Spanish cause in the war for independence. Protests by Afro-Cubans against a law prohibiting political organization by race or religion led to a bloody government crackdown that claimed the lives of thousands. The Liberal party split, and in the election of 1912 the Conservative candidate, Menocal, won.

Menocal’s administration oversaw much material progress, but with prosperity came new charges of government corruption, including accusations of nepotism. Menocal won reelection in 1916 by employing fraud and violence, and, as a result, war broke out against him in February 1917. The rebels had hoped for intervention by the U.S., but it was too occupied with the situation in Europe, and Menocal was able to put down the rebellion. Menocal’s government declared war on Germany on April 7, 1917, the day after the U.S. entered World War I.

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Until 1919 Cuba enjoyed phenomenal prosperity, thanks to the high price of sugar. By 1920, however, a severe financial crisis had struck the country, and, despite a moratorium, many banks and other business concerns went bankrupt. Zayas introduced financial reforms and was given a $50 million loan by the U.S. in January 1923. The economic situation rapidly improved, but charges of corruption against Zayas intensified, and revolts broke out against him, led in part by war veterans. When Zayas tried to get himself renominated, he ran into stiff opposition from his own party. He therefore made a pact with the Liberal candidate, Gen. Gerardo Machado y Morales, against Menocal, who ran as the Conservative candidate in the election of 1924.

Machado was elected overwhelmingly and assumed office on May 20, 1925. He was to become Cuba’s first full-fledged dictator. Pledged to a program of reform, he made good only a few of his promises during his first term. With the beginning of his second term, in 1928, a rule of terror began. Martial law was proclaimed, and Congress allowed him to suspend freedom of speech, press, and assembly. Political opposition, allayed by an adroit distribution of patronage in 1928, revived against Machado as the economic depression of the early 1930s hit Cuba. An attempt to stabilize the price of sugar, always the mainstay of Cuba’s economy, failed, and no substantial relief came from a public-works program. As the opposition increased, Machado adopted increasingly harsher methods against it. Cuban exiles fled to the U.S., and, as violence intensified, the U.S. offered to mediate. An amnesty was declared, and constitutional and political reforms were promised. With the economic crisis deepening and with Machado apparently determined to stay in office in spite of promises to resign, the army forced him to flee the country in August 1933.