Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, (Autumn, 9 ce), conflict between the Roman Empire and Germanic insurgents. The Germanic leader Arminius organized a series of ambushes on a column of three Roman legions headed by Publius Quinctilius Varus. Roman sources indicate that over the course of four days Arminius destroyed all three legions and ultimately prevented Rome from subjugating Germania east of the Rhine River.

Context

Julius Caesar’s conquest of Gaul in the mid-1st century bce divided the largely Celtic tribes into distinctly Romanized provinces and free Germanic chiefdoms, with the Rhine River as a natural boundary. In the winter of 17/16 bce, Legio V Alaudae lost its aquila (“eagle”) standard to the Sicambri tribe. Every legion carried an aquila as an embodiment of Roman spirit; losing it was the ultimate disgrace. With an aquila now in the hands of the Sicambri, Emperor Augustus Caesar realized the necessity of bringing the region of Germania to heel. He spent the next four years increasing Rome’s military presence on the frontier and sent his adoptive son Drusus to pacify the area in his stead. Drusus created two armies for the lower and middle Rhine, regions which the Romans called Germania Inferior and Germania Superior, respectively. In 12 bce Drusus took the army of Germania Superior on an expedition to crush the Sicambri, Frisii, and Chauci tribes to the north. He was able to force the tribes to surrender before year’s end, and some sources suggest that he retrieved the lost aquila. Drusus then aimed his legions at the densely forested territory farther east of the Rhine. He built a large fort in the Lippe valley and wintered there before pacifying the region. Over the following years, he advanced as far as the Elbe River in the east of modern Germany. Before he died in 9 bce, Drusus had subjugated a vast swath of territory and tribes that the Romans collectively called Germania.

Drusus’s brother, Tiberius, took command of the army of Germania Superior after Drusus’s death. He maintained peace among the tribes by relocating his legions across the region, and, apart from an insurrection that was put down by Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, the region remained calm. However, in 4 ce Augustus directed Tiberius to complete Drusus’s war and make the whole of Germania fully taxable. In the winter of 5–6 ce, the army of Germania Superior marched north and east into the land of the Marcomanni on the Danube. Tiberius had intended to depart from his station in Pannonia during that time, but a revolt in his province occupied his legions for three years.

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In the meantime, Publius Quinctilius Varus acted as governor of the proto-province of Germania. He had command of the three legions constituting the army of Germania Inferior: Legio XVII, Legio XVIII, and Legio XIX. He collected taxes at Augustus’s direction, but this attempt at Romanizing the province stoked anger among the tribes. In the summer of 9 ce, Arminius of the Cherusci began to plot an insurrection. He had been an ally of the Romans in previous years, growing up in Rome as a noble hostage, receiving Roman citizenship, and even being given the honourable rank of eques (Roman knight). Arminius frequently acted as a messenger between the Romans and the Germanic tribes, and it was in this role that he was able to curry favour for his revolt among the tribal leaders. He decided to inform Varus of a supposed rebellion in the lands of the Bructeri in the northwest reaches of Germania. Despite rival chieftain Segestes’ warnings regarding Arminius’s treachery, Varus believed the report, and he began summoning his legions from their defensive stations for a march to the frontier. From his base along the Weser River, perhaps near what is now the German city of Minden, Varus quickly set out westward and built roads along the way.

On the first day of the march, Arminius and his coconspirators asked to leave the army in order to rally Rome’s Germanic allies. Varus granted the request. The Romans built a camp near the end of that day while Arminius’s rebels prepared to attack.

Battle

While modern scholarship is divided on the timeline thereafter, Cassius Dio’s account—the most detailed of the Roman sources—extends the battle over a period of four days. Dio and other sources suggest that while marching for a second day, Varus’s column reached a pass between the Kalkriese Hill and a great bog. As a whole, the column consisted of roughly 20,000 men and extended 7–8 miles (11.3–12.9 km) in length. The pass they were crossing through is reported to have been heavily forested and muddy as a result of a torrential downpour. The rebel Germanic tribesmen were stationed along the hill behind a series of fortifications. From this position on the high ground, the tribesmen began to throw javelins and fire arrows into the Roman column; some barreled down the hill and fought the legionaries hand to hand. Being on disadvantageous terrain and caught by surprise, Varus’s legions were unable to take up defensive formations, and the column may have split in two. Some continued to fight the Germanic insurgents on the Kalkriese slope, but a large wall of sand allowed the tribesmen to repeatedly attack the legionaries and then retreat behind their fortifications. A large portion of the Roman column was shattered on this day.

The remains of Varus’s legions retreated to the west, probably in the direction of modern Osnabrück, and camped on a nearby hill for the night. On the third day, they proceeded through some open terrain and into another wooded area. Here they were ambushed again, suffering heavy losses in part because the cavalry and infantry collided with each other in their efforts to coordinate attacks. Some members of those tribes who had not initially joined Arminius chose to support his cause, and so the army of the Germanic alliance grew.

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On the fourth day, Varus led the shattered survivors along a familiar road in the valley of the Ems. Worsening rains and a violent wind are said to have affected the fighting capabilities of the already exhausted soldiers, however, and the Germanic tribesmen pursued them to this point. Understanding that their total defeat was inevitable, Varus and his officers fell on their swords to avoid capture by Arminius’s men. Many other Romans took their own lives, others surrendered, and still others attempted to flee. Only a few escaped to the safety of the provinces. Those who were captured were likely enslaved or sacrificed to the gods, their aquilae desecrated. In total, nearly 20,000 Romans were killed in the engagement, while German losses were minimal.

Aftermath

The annihilation of three veteran legions at the hands of the Germanic tribes shook the Roman Empire to its core. Rome’s previously successful wars of conquest had steadily inflated the empire’s sense of superiority over neighbouring powers, particularly those in northern and central Europe. The tragedy in the Teutoburg Forest struck fear into the hearts of the Romans. The historian Suetonius writes that Augustus went months without cutting his beard or hair—a sign of mourning in Roman religious tradition—and often wailed, “Quinctilius Varus, give me back my legions!”

Tiberius waged three subsequent campaigns against the Germanic tribes, but he chose not to occupy their land east of the Rhine. Instead, he stationed at least eight legions along the frontier to safeguard the provinces of eastern Gaul against a Germanic invasion. During the autumn of 14 ce, a Roman commander named Germanicus led a vengeful campaign into Germania in search of the fallen legions. He came upon each of the points at which Varus’s column had been attacked and buried the remains of the dead in the Teutoburg Forest at Varus’s final resting place. Germanicus subjugated several of the nearby tribes and retrieved at least one aquila. By 16 ce he had reconquered the Lippe valley and most of the coast along the North Sea. However, Tiberius, now emperor, again chose not to bring the area under Roman rule, instead hoping that Germanicus’s campaign would serve as a warning.