Media ethics

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Media ethics is the subdivision of applied ethics dealing with the specific ethical principles and standards of media, including broadcast media, film, theatre, the arts, print media and the internet. The field covers many varied and highly controversial topics, ranging from war journalism to Benetton ad campaigns.

Contents

Media ethics promotes and defends values such as a universal respect for life and the rule of law and legality. [1] Media Ethics defines and deals with ethical questions about how media should use texts and pictures provided by the citizens.

Literature regarding the ways in which specifically the Internet impacts media ethics in journalism online is scarce, thereby complicating the idea for a universal code of media ethics. [2]

History of media ethics

Research and publications in the field of information ethics has been produced since the 1980s. [3] Notable figures include Robert Hauptman (who focused his work specifically on censorship, privacy, access to information, balance in collection development, copyright, fair use, and codes of ethics), Rafael Capurro, Barbara J. Kostrewski and Charles Oppenheim (who wrote the article "“Ethics in Information Science” , discussing issues as confidentiality of information, bias in information provided to clients or consumers, the quality of data supplied by online vendors, etc.). [3]

In the 1990s, the term "information ethics" began to be explored by various Computer Science and Information departments in the United States. [3]

In the late 1990s, textbooks such as Richard Severson's The Principles of Information Ethics and Marsha Cook Woodbury's Computer and Information Ethics, and Deborah G. Johnson's Computer Ethics were published. [3]

Areas of media ethics

Media ethics: Issues of moral principles and values as applied to the conduct, roles, and content of the mass media, in particular journalism ethics and standards and marketing ethics; also the field of study concerned with this topic. In relation to news coverage it includes issues such as impartiality, objectivity, balance, bias, privacy, and the public interest. More generally, it also includes stereotyping, taste and decency, obscenity, freedom of speech, advertising practices such as product placement, and legal issues such as defamation. On an institutional level it includes debates over media ownership and control, commercialization, accountability, the relation of the media to the political system, issues arising from regulation (e.g. censorship) and deregulation.

Ethics of journalism

Photographers crowd around a starlet at the Cannes Film Festival. Starlette.jpg
Photographers crowd around a starlet at the Cannes Film Festival.

The ethics of journalism is one of the most well-defined branches of media ethics, primarily because it is frequently taught in schools of journalism. Journalistic ethics tend to dominate media ethics, sometimes almost to the exclusion of other areas. [4] Topics covered by journalism ethics include:

Online journalism

Internationally recognized journalists and scholar Steven J. A. Ward defines journalism ethics as the responsible use of freedom of speech. The ethics of online journalism holds great importance to the authenticity and credibility of reported literature although it can be difficult to gauge a set standard because of differences in national and international cultural values. [5] In this current digital climate with multiple new technologies and broad availability of information, Journalists have less ascendancy over what is considered important news. Online journalists must now assist consumers make sense of it all. [6] The Internet has shaped and redefined various ethical and moral issues for both online journalists and journalists utilizing online resources. [2] While some journalists continue to adhere to ethical principles of traditional journalism, many journalists believe that with the absence of a mutually agreed upon code of ethics specifically pertaining to internet ethics, and lack of literature dealing specifically with the ways in which the Internet impacts media ethics in journalism online, the online environment poses new threats to the profession. [2]

Some of the core issues of media ethics in online journalism include commercial pressures, accuracy and credibility (which include the issues dealing with hyperlinks), verification of facts, regulation, privacy, and news-gathering methods. [2] In addition the ethics in question are not only limited to the action of reporters, but the decisions organizations and outlets that release information. Questions emerge on the ethical responsibilities of organizations to the public such as whether it is unethical for stories to be reported expediently to get the better of competition rather than taking time to receive the full story. [6]

Ethics of entertainment media

Issues in the ethics of entertainment media include:

Media and democracy

In democratic countries, a special relationship exists between media and government. Although the freedom of the media may be constitutionally enshrined and have precise legal definition and enforcement, the exercise of that freedom by individual journalists is a matter of personal choice and ethics. Modern democratic government subsists in representation of millions by hundreds. For the representatives to be accountable, and for the process of government to be transparent, effective communication paths must exist to their constituents. Today these paths consist primarily of the mass media, to the extent that if press freedom disappeared, so would most political accountability. In this area, media ethics merges with issues of civil rights and politics. Issues include:

See: freedom of information, media transparency Right to Information. L Mera

Media integrity

Media integrity refers to the ability of a media outlet to serve the public interest and democratic process, making it resilient to institutional corruption within the media system, [9] economy of influence, conflicting dependence and political clientelism. Media integrity encompasses following qualities of a media outlet:

The concept was devised particularly for the media systems in the region of South East Europe, [10] within the project South East European Media Observatory, gathering organizations which are part of the South East European Network for Professionalization of Media (SEENPM).

Digital media ethics

Digital news media includes online journalism, blogging, digital photojournalism, citizen journalism, and social media. [11] It talks about how journalism should interact and use the 'new media' to publish stories including how to use texts and images provided by other people.

Ethics of images

There are new ethical issues due to the new image technology. Citizens now have the availability to take pictures and videos in easier and faster ways like smartphones which allow them to not only collect information but also edit and manipulate it. [12]

This convergence of ease of capture, ease of transmission, and ease of manipulation questions the traditional principles of photojournalism which were developed for non-digital capture and transmission of pictures and video. [11]

The main issues regarding the new image technology is that the newsroom cannot trust the easily obtained images and also the limit of the image edit. It is vague and very difficult to decide the borderline of image manipulation.

It is very complicated and still a dilemma to clarify the principles of responsible image-making and ethics on it.

Attempts to develop a universal code of media ethics

Within the last two decades, numerous regional discussions have taken place in Europe, Latin America, Africa, and Asia in order to create a universal code of ethics for the information society. [13]

One of the core issues in developing a universal code for media ethics is the difficulty of finding a common ground between ethical principles from one culture to another. [13] Also, such codes may be interpreted differently according to various moral and legal standards. [13]

UNESCO INFOethics Congresses

The ethical facet of the global information society has been on the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) agenda since 1997, when the organization initiated their first INFOethics Congress. [13] The objective of this summit was to spark debate on the ethical dimension of the global information society. [13] The UNESCO INFOethics Congresses then met in 1998 and 2000, where specialists coming from a wide range of educational, scientific, and cultural environments addressed the ethical dimensions of global media and information. [13]

International Symposium on Information Ethics, Karlsuhe, 2004

In 2004, the ICIE, or International Center for Information Ethics, organized the first international symposium on information ethics in Karlsruhe, Germany. [13] Experts with varying scientific backgrounds such as computer science, information science, media studies, and economics, gathered from all over the world to discuss the internet from both an ethical and intercultural perspective. [13]

Contexts of media ethics

Media ethics and public officials

The media has manipulated the way public officials conduct themselves through the advancement of technology. Constant television coverage displays the legislative proceedings; exposing faster than ever before, unjust rulings throughout the government process. Truth telling is crucial in media ethics as any opposition of truth telling is considered deception. Anything shown by the media whether print or video is considered to be original. When a statement is written in an article or a video is shown of a public official, it is the original “truthful” words of the individual official themselves.

Intercultural dimensions of media ethics

If values differ interculturally, the issue arises of the extent to which behaviour should be modified in the light of the values of specific cultures. Two examples of controversy from the field of media ethics:

Meta-issues in media ethics

One theoretical question for media ethics is the extent to which media ethics is just another topical subdivision of applied ethics, differing only in terms of case applications and raising no theoretical issues peculiar to itself. The oldest subdivisions of applied ethics are medical ethics and business ethics. Does media ethics have anything new to add other than interesting cases?

Similarities between media ethics and other fields of applied ethics

Privacy and honesty are issues extensively covered in medical ethical literature, as is the principle of harm-avoidance. The trade-offs between economic goals and social values has been covered extensively in business ethics (as well as medical and environmental ethics).

Differences between media ethics and other fields of applied ethics

The issues of freedom of speech and aesthetic values (taste) are primarily at home in media ethics. However a number of further issues distinguish media ethics as a field in its own right.

A theoretical issue peculiar to media ethics is the identity of observer and observed. The press is one of the primary guardians in a democratic society of many of the freedoms, rights and duties discussed by other fields of applied ethics. In media ethics the ethical obligations of the guardians themselves comes more strongly into the foreground. Who guards the guardians? This question also arises in the field of legal ethics.

A further self-referentiality or circular characteristic in media ethics is the questioning of its own values. Meta-issues can become identical with the subject matter of media ethics. This is most strongly seen when artistic elements are considered. Benetton advertisements and Turner prize candidates are both examples of ethically questionable media uses which question their own questioner.

Another characteristic of media ethics is the disparate nature of its goals. Ethical dilemmas emerge when goals conflict. The goals of media usage diverge sharply. Expressed in a consequentialist manner, media usage may be subject to pressures to maximize: economic profits, entertainment value, information provision, the upholding of democratic freedoms, the development of art and culture, fame and vanity.

Artificial intelligence in digital content

Artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a force in the creation of digital content displayed in the media. It has the capability to produce text and images. AI tools give its users the ability to generate imagery and writing quickly, bringing in an ethical concern regarding biases from source data, misinformation, and manipulative content. [14] Algorithms utilized by AI systems often lend themselves to creating engaging and viral-prone content. These lend themselves to the dissemination of misleading, and inaccurate information. These issues raise ethical concerns and an importance of establishing ethical frameworks to address AI in media. When AI-generated content provides the public with misinformation, and bias, there is an unclear idea of who is responsible for the harm or damage caused. [15] These problems are made greater by social media platforms. These platforms provide financial and social benefit for those who receive large amounts of attention, leading media creators to more frequently spread unreviewed and opinionated information. [16]

Further reading

See also

Related Research Articles

Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the "news of the day" and that informs society to at least some degree of accuracy. The word, a noun, applies to the occupation, the methods of gathering information, and the organizing literary styles.

Journalism scandals are high-profile incidents or acts, whether intentional or accidental, that run contrary to the generally accepted ethics and standards of journalism, or otherwise violate the 'ideal' mission of journalism: to report news events and issues accurately and fairly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photojournalism</span> Using images to tell a news story

Photojournalism is journalism that uses images to tell a news story. It usually only refers to still images, but can also refer to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography by having a rigid ethical framework which demands an honest and impartial approach that tells a story in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalists contribute to the news media, and help communities connect with one other. They must be well-informed and knowledgeable, and are able to deliver news in a creative manner that is both informative and entertaining.

The ethics of technology is a sub-field of ethics addressing ethical questions specific to the technology age, the transitional shift in society wherein personal computers and subsequent devices provide for the quick and easy transfer of information. Technology ethics is the application of ethical thinking to growing concerns as new technologies continue to rise in prominence.

Journalistic ethics and standards comprise principles of ethics and good practice applicable to journalists. This subset of media ethics is known as journalism's professional "code of ethics" and the "canons of journalism". The basic codes and canons commonly appear in statements by professional journalism associations and individual print, broadcast, and online news organizations.

Independent media refers to any media, such as television, newspapers, or Internet-based publications, that is free of influence by government or corporate interests. The term has varied applications.

Civic journalism is the idea of integrating journalism into the democratic process. The media not only informs the public, but it also works towards engaging citizens and creating public debate. The civic journalism movement is an attempt to abandon the notion that journalists and their audiences are spectators in political and social processes. In its place, the civic journalism movement seeks to treat readers and community members as participants.

Information ethics has been defined as "the branch of ethics that focuses on the relationship between the creation, organization, dissemination, and use of information, and the ethical standards and moral codes governing human conduct in society". It examines the morality that comes from information as a resource, a product, or as a target. It provides a critical framework for considering moral issues concerning informational privacy, moral agency, new environmental issues, problems arising from the life-cycle of information. It is very vital to understand that librarians, archivists, information professionals among others, really understand the importance of knowing how to disseminate proper information as well as being responsible with their actions when addressing information.

Marketing ethics is an area of applied ethics which deals with the moral principles behind the operation and regulation of marketing. Some areas of marketing ethics overlap with media and public relations ethics.

Source protection, sometimes also referred to as source confidentiality or in the U.S. as the reporter's privilege, is a right accorded to journalists under the laws of many countries, as well as under international law. It prohibits authorities, including the courts, from compelling a journalist to reveal the identity of an anonymous source for a story. The right is based on a recognition that without a strong guarantee of anonymity, many would be deterred from coming forward and sharing information of public interests with journalists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Political journalism</span> Political reporter

Political journalism is a broad branch of journalism that includes coverage of all aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power.

Community journalism is locally-oriented, professional news coverage that typically focuses on city neighborhoods, individual suburbs or small towns, rather than metropolitan, state, national or world news.

The mass media in Serbia refers to mass media outlets based in Serbia. Both state-owned and for-profit corporations operate television, magazines, and newspapers, which depend on advertising, subscription, and other sales-related revenues. The Constitution of Serbia guarantees freedom of speech.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyberethics</span> Ethics of online activities

Cyberethics is "a branch of ethics concerned with behavior in an online environment". In another definition, it is the "exploration of the entire range of ethical and moral issues that arise in cyberspace" while cyberspace is understood to be "the electronic worlds made visible by the Internet." For years, various governments have enacted regulations while organizations have defined policies about cyberethics.

The code of ethics in media was created by a suggestion from the 1947 Hutchins Commission. They suggested that newspapers, broadcasters and journalists had started to become more responsible for journalism and thought they should be held accountable.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to journalism:

Mass media regulations or simply media regulations are a form of media policy with rules enforced by the jurisdiction of law. Guidelines for mass media use differ across the world. This regulation, via law, rules or procedures, can have various goals, for example intervention to protect a stated "public interest", or encouraging competition and an effective media market, or establishing common technical standards. The principal targets of mass media regulation are the press, radio and television, but may also include film, recorded music, cable, satellite, storage and distribution technology, the internet, mobile phones etc. It includes the regulation of independent media.

Drone journalism is the use of drones, or unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), for journalistic purposes. According to the Federal Aviation Administration, "an unmanned aircraft is a device that is used, or is intended to be used, for flight in the air with no onboard pilot".

Communication ethics is a sub-branch of moral philosophy concerning the understanding of manifestations of communicative interaction.

Internet universality is a concept and framework adopted by UNESCO in 2015 to summarize their position on the internet. The concept recognizes that "the Internet is much more than infrastructure and applications; it is a network of economic and social interactions and relationships, which has the potential to enable human rights, empower individuals and communities, and facilitate sustainable development." The concept is based on four principles agreed upon by UNESCO member states: human rights, openness, accessibility, and multi-stakeholder participation, abbreviated as the R-O-A-M principles.

References

  1. ↑ Moldovan, Gratian. "Media Ethics in the Ideological Context of the Twentieth Century". Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice. 6: 589–593 – via Academic Search Complete.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Deuze I, Yeshua II, Mark I, Daphna II (December 2001). "Online Journalists Face New Ethical Dilemmas: Lessons From The Netherlands". Journal of Mass Media Ethics. 16 (4): 273–292. doi:10.1207/S15327728JMME1604_03. S2CID   144433650 – via Academic Search Complete.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. 1 2 3 4 Froehlich, Thomas (December 2004). "A Brief History of Information Ethics". Universitat de Barcelona. Facultat de Biblioteconomia I Documentació– via Academic Search Complete.
  4. ↑ "AllenNCW2001". Archived from the original on 27 June 2004.
  5. ↑ Auman, Ann; Stos, Susan; Burch, Elizabeth (March 2020). "Ethics Without Borders in a Digital Age". Journalism & Mass Communication Educator. 75 (1): 9–15. doi:10.1177/1077695820901941. ISSN   1077-6958. S2CID   213837211.
  6. 1 2 Atkinson, Lucy (August 2008). "Book Review: Cecilia Friend and Jane B. Singer, Online Journalism Ethics: Traditions and Transitions. Armonk, NY. M.E. Sharpe, 2007. xi + 245 pp. (ISBN 978-0-7656-1574-9, pbk)". New Media & Society. 10 (4): 671–674. doi:10.1177/14614448080100040503. ISSN   1461-4448. S2CID   13182774.
  7. 1 2 3 Weight, Alden (Spring 2011). "Making A Monkey Look Good: The Case For Consumer Ethics of Entertainment Media". Teaching Ethics. doi:10.5840/tej20111129.
  8. ↑ Bill Moyers, Media and Democracy, The Nation (Editorial), December 15, 2003
  9. ↑ Lessig, Lawrence. "Institutional Corruption". wiki.lessig.org. Retrieved 2016-03-11.
  10. ↑ Petković, Brankica, ed. (2014). Media Integrity Matters: Reclaiming Public Service Values in Media and Journalism: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia (PDF). Ljubljana: Peace Institute.
  11. 1 2 "Digital Media Ethics". Center for Journalism Ethics. Retrieved 2019-11-24.
  12. ↑ Friend, Cecilia and Jane Singer. Online Journalism Ethics: Traditions and Transitions. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2007.[ ISBN missing ][ page needed ]
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Capurro; Britz, Rafael; Johannes B. (2010). "In Search of a Code of Global Information Ethics: The Road Travelled and New Horizons" (PDF). Ethical Space: The International Journal of Communication Ethics. 7– via Academic Search Complete.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ↑ Köbis, Nils Christopher (September 9, 2022). "The Corruption Risks of Artificial Intelligence". Transparency International: 7–10.
  15. ↑ Harbor, Anton. "Accountability and the Media". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 652: 206–210.
  16. ↑ Replogle, Elaine. "Fame, Social Media Use, and Ethics". Sociological Forum. 29 (3).

Further reading

Books

[1] [2]

Journals

Cases

  1. ↑ Chadwick, Ruth; Belsey, Andrew (1992). Ethical Issues in Journalism and the Media (Professional Ethics). New York: Routledge. ISBN   0-203-00588-0.
  2. ↑ Black, Jay; Barney, Ralph D (2002). "Codes of Ethics: A Special Issue". Journal of Mass Media Ethics. 17 (2).
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