Landrace

Last updated
Aerial roots of a maize landrace grown in nitrogen-depleted soils in the Sierra Mixe, known for extensive aerial roots with a bacterial gel supplying 29-82% of the plant's nitrogen supply Journal.pbio.2006352.g002 cropped.png
Aerial roots of a maize landrace grown in nitrogen-depleted soils in the Sierra Mixe, known for extensive aerial roots with a bacterial gel supplying 29–82% of the plant's nitrogen supply

A landrace is a domesticated, locally adapted, [2] [3] [4] often traditional [5] variety of a species of animal or plant that has developed over time, through adaptation to its natural and cultural environment of agriculture and pastoralism, and due to isolation from other populations of the species. [2] Landraces are distinct from cultivars and from standard breeds. [6]

Contents

A significant proportion of farmers around the world grow landrace crops, [4] and most plant landraces are associated with traditional agricultural systems. [5] Landraces of many crops have probably been grown for millennia. [7] Increasing reliance upon modern plant cultivars that are bred to be uniform has led to a reduction in biodiversity, [8] [9] [10] because most of the genetic diversity of domesticated plant species lies in landraces and other traditionally used varieties. [9] Some farmers using scientifically improved varieties also continue to raise landraces for agronomic reasons that include better adaptation to the local environment, lower fertilizer requirements, lower cost, and better disease resistance. Cultural and market preferences for landraces include culinary uses and product attributes such as texture, color, or ease of use. [8] [9]

Plant landraces have been the subject of more academic research, and the majority of academic literature about landraces is focused on botany in agriculture, not animal husbandry. Animal landraces are distinct from ancestral wild species of modern animal stock, and are also distinct from separate species or subspecies derived from the same ancestor as modern domestic stock. Not all landraces derive from wild or ancient animal stock; in some cases, notably dogs and horses, domestic animals have escaped in sufficient numbers in an area to breed feral populations that form new landraces through evolutionary pressure.

Characteristics

There are differences between authoritative sources on the specific criteria which describe landraces, although there is broad consensus about the existence and utility of the classification. Individual criteria may be weighted differently depending on a given source's focus (e.g., governmental regulation, biological sciences, agribusiness, anthropology and culture, environmental conservation, pet -keeping and -breeding, etc.). Additionally, not all cultivars agreed to be landraces exhibit every characteristic of a landrace. [5] General features that characterize a landrace may include:

A basket of landrace snap melons Cucumis melo subspecies agrestis, cultivar group Momordica from Pemba town, northern Mozambique. The landrace incorporates different colours and patterns of the fruit surface and is the only melon cultivar group in northern Mozambique. Snap melon - ("phoot") (8685833094).jpg
A basket of landrace snap melons Cucumis melo subspecies agrestis, cultivar group Momordica from Pemba town, northern Mozambique. The landrace incorporates different colours and patterns of the fruit surface and is the only melon cultivar group in northern Mozambique.

Terminology

Landrace literally means 'country-breed' (German: Landrasse) [14] and close cognates of it are found in various Germanic languages. The first known reference to the role of landraces as genetic resources was made in 1890 at an agriculture and forestry congress in Vienna, Austria. The term was first defined by Kurt von Rümker in 1908, [7] and more clearly described in 1909 by U. J. Mansholt, who wrote that landraces have more stable characteristics and better resistance to adverse conditions, but have lower production capacity than cultivars, and are apt to change genetically when moved to another environment. [7] H. Kiessling added in 1912 that a landrace is a mixture of phenotypic forms despite relative outward uniformity, and a great adaptability to its natural and human environment. [7]

The word landrace entered non-academic English in the early 1930s, by way of the Danish Landrace pig, a particular breed of lop-eared swine. [14] Many other languages do not use separate terms, like landrace and breed, but instead rely on extended description to convey such distinctions. Spanish is one such language.[ citation needed ]

Geneticist D. Phillip Sponenberg described animal breeds within these classes: the landrace, the standardized breed, modern "type" breeds, industrial strains, and feral populations. He describes landraces as an early stage of breed development, created by a combination of founder effect, isolation, and environmental pressures. Human selection for production goals is also typical of landraces. [15]

As discussed in more detail in breed, that term itself has several definitions from various scientific and animal husbandry perspectives. Some of those senses of breed relate to the concept of landraces. A Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) guideline defines landrace and landrace breed as "a breed that has largely developed through adaptation to the natural environment and traditional production system in which it has been raised." [6] This is in contrast to its definition of a standardized breed: "a breed of livestock that was developed according to a strict programme of genetic isolation and formal artificial selection to achieve a particular phenotype."

In various domestic species (including pigs, goats, sheep and geese) some standardized breeds include "Landrace" in their names, but do not meet widely used definitions of landraces. For example, the British Landrace pig is a standardized breed, derived from earlier breeds with "Landrace" names. [16]

Farmers' variety, usually applied to local cultivars, or seen as intermediate between a landrace and a cultivar, [17] may also include landraces when referring to plant varieties not subjected to formal breeding programs. [12]

Autochthonous and allochthonous landraces

A landrace native to, or produced for a long time within the agricultural system in which it is found is referred to as an autochthonous landrace, while a more recently introduced one is termed an allochthonous landrace. [7] [5] [18]

Within academic agronomy, the term autochthonous landrace is sometimes used with a more technical, productivity-related definition, synthesized by A. C. Zeven from previous definitions beginning with Mansholt's: "an autochthonous landrace is a variety with a high capacity to tolerate biotic and abiotic stress, resulting in a high yield stability and an intermediate yield level under a low input agricultural system." [7]

The terms autochthonous and allochthonous are most often applied to plants, with animals more often being referred to as indigenous or native. Examples of references in sources to long-term local landraces of livestock include constructions such as "indigenous landraces of sheep", [19] and "Leicester Longwool sheep were bred to the native landraces of the region". [20] Some usage of autochthonous does occur in reference to livestock, e.g. "autochthonous races of cattle such as the Asturian mountain cattle – Ratina and Casina – and Tudanca cattle." [21]

Biodiversity and conservation

A morphologically diverse group of fruit from the Zapallo Plomo landrace of Cucurbita maxima squash Cucurbita maxima zapallo plomo (semillas Costanzi) temporada 2014.jpg
A morphologically diverse group of fruit from the Zapallo Plomo landrace of Cucurbita maxima squash

A significant proportion of farmers around the world grow landrace crops. [4] However, as industrialized agriculture spreads, cultivars, which are selectively bred for high yield, rapid growth, disease and drought resistance, and other commercial production values, are supplanting landraces, putting more and more of them at risk of extinction.[ citation needed ]

In 1927 at the International Agricultural Congress, organized by the predecessor of the FAO, an extensive discussion was held on the need to conserve landraces. A recommendation that members organize nation-by-nation landrace conservation did not succeed in leading to widespread conservation efforts. [7]

Landraces are often free from many intellectual property and other regulatory encumbrances. However, in some jurisdictions, a focus on their production may result in missing out on some benefits afforded to producers of genetically selected and homogenous organisms, including breeders' rights legislation, easier availability of loans and other business services, even the right to share seed or stock with others, depending on how favorable the laws in the area are to high-yield agribusiness interests. [9]

As Regine Andersen of the Fridtjof Nansen Institute (Norway) and the Farmers' Rights Project puts it, "Agricultural biodiversity is being eroded. This trend is putting at risk the ability of future generations to feed themselves. In order to reverse the trend, new policies must be implemented worldwide. The irony of the matter is that the poorest farmers are the stewards of genetic diversity." [9] Protecting farmer interests and protecting biodiversity is at the heart of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (the "Plant Treaty" for short), under the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), though its concerns are not exclusively limited to landraces. [9]

Landraces played a basic role in the development of the standardized breeds but are today threatened by the market success of the standardized breeds. In developing countries, landraces still play an important role, especially in traditional production systems. [6] Specimens within an animal landrace tend to be genetically similar, though more diverse than members of a standardized or formal breed. [2]

Carosello and Barattiere, Italian landraces of Cucumis melo whose fruits are eaten unripe Ecotipi carosello e barattiere.jpg
Carosello and Barattiere , Italian landraces of Cucumis melo whose fruits are eaten unripe

In situ and ex situ landrace conservation

Two approaches have been used to conserve plant landraces: [10] [22]

As the amount of agricultural land dedicated to growing landrace crops declines, such as in the example of wheat landraces in the Fertile Crescent, landraces can become extinct in cultivation. Therefore ex situ landrace conservation practices are considered a way to avoid losing the genetic diversity completely. Research published in 2020 suggested that existing ways of cataloging diversity within ex situ genebanks fall short of cataloging the appropriate information for landrace crops. [22]

An in situ conservation effort to save the Berrettina di Lungavilla squash landrace made use of participatory plant breeding practices in order to incorporate the local community into the work. [23]

Preserving cereal landraces

Preservation efforts for cereal strains are ongoing including in situ and in online-searchable germplasm collections (seed banks), coordinated by Biodiversity International and the National Institute of Agricultural Botany (NIAB, UK). [4] However, more may need to be done, because plant genetic variety, the source of crop health and seed quality, depends on a diversity of landraces and other traditionally used varieties. [9] Efforts (as of 2008) were mostly focused on Iberia, the Balkans, and European Russia, and dominated by species from mountainous areas. [4] Despite their incompleteness, these efforts have been described as "crucial in preventing the extinction of many of these local ecotypes". [4]

An agricultural study published in 2008 showed that landrace cereal crops began to decline in Europe in the 19th century such that cereal landraces "have largely fallen out of use" in Europe. [4] Landrace cultivation in central and northwest Europe was almost eradicated by the early 20th century, due to economic pressure to grow improved, modern cultivars. [24] While many in the region are already extinct, [4] some have survived by being passed from generation to generation, [4] and have also been revived by enthusiasts outside Europe to preserve European agriculture and food culture elsewhere. [4] These survivals are usually for specific uses, such as thatch, and traditional European cuisine and craft beer brewing. [4]

Plants

Plant landrace development

The label landrace includes regional cultigens that are genetically heterogeneous, but with enough characteristics in common to permit their recognition as a group. These characteristics are used by farmers to manage diversity and purity within landraces. [25]

In some cultures, the development of new landraces is typically limited to members of specific social groups, such as women or shaman. Maintaining existing landraces, like developing new landraces, requires that farmers be able to identify crop-specific characteristics and that those characteristics are passed on to following generations. [25]

Over time, the process of identifying the distinguishing characteristic or features of a new landrace is reinforced by cultivation processes; for example, descendants of a plant that is notably drought tolerant may become iteratively more so through selective breeding as farmers regard it as better for dry areas and prioritize planting it in those locations. This is one way in which farming systems can develop a portfolio of landraces over time that have specific ecological niches and uses. [25]

Conversely, modern cultivars can also be developed into a landrace over time when farmers save seed and practice selective breeding. [12]

Although landraces are often discussed once they have become endemic to a particular geographical region, landraces have always been moved over long and short distances. Some landraces can adapt to various environments, while others only thrive within specific conditions. Self-fertilizing and vegetatively populated species adapt by changing the frequencies of phenotypes. Outbreeding crops absorb new genotypes through intentional and unintentional hybridization, or through mutation. [7]

A clear example of vegetal landrace would consist in the diverse adaptations of wheat to differential artificial selection constraints. [26]

Cultivars developed from landraces

Members of a landrace variety, selected for uniformity with regards to a unique feature over a period of time, can be developed into a farmers' variety or cultivar. [17] Traits from landraces are valuable for incorporation into elite lines. [27] Crop disease resistance genes from landraces can provide eternally-needed resistances to more widely-used, modern varieties. [27]

Examples of plant landraces

Beans

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Caparrona bean [28] Phaseolus vulgaris Monzón, Italy Also known by the name of Caparrona de Monzón, characterized by highly productive plants with white beans that have a brown pattern around the hilum, medium brilliance, and oval shape. The Caparrona bean is usually used as a dry bean but can also be eaten as a green bean. [29]
Ganxet bean [28]

Carrots

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Carota di Polignano Daucus carota Polignano, Italy Multicolored roots from yellow to purple [28] [30]

Maize

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Sierra Mixe corn Zea mays Sierra Mixe Unusually tall and with aerial roots which secrete mucus which supports nitrogen-fixing bacteria

Okra

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Khandahar Pendi Abelmoschus esculentus Afghanistan Has green, red, pink, or white pods that have a variety of shapes and sizes. [31]

Peas

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Maruti Cajanus cajan [17]

Peppers

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Cacho de cabra Capsicum annuum Maule region of Chile Considered to be the most popular in the region of Maule [32]
Chileno negro Capsicum baccatum Maule region of Chile [32]
Chimayó pepper Chimayó, New Mexico Considered the most well known of the New Mexico chile landraces [33]
Santo Domingo Pueblo chili Santo Domingo Pueblo An early-maturing landrace from the pueblo that served as a headquarters for Spanish colonial missions as well as a key location of resistance against the Spanish settlers in the 1600s. [33]

Rice

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Jumli Marshi Nepal A cold-tolerant and popular rice landrace grown in mountain ecosystems. An evolutionary plant breeding program was used to increase its resistance to blast disease while maintaining landrace diversity. [34]
Kalanamak rice [28]

Squash

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Berrettina di Lungavilla Cucurbita maxima Po river floodplain, Italy From the Po floodplain in Northern Italy that nearly went extinct [23]
Cappello da prete [28]
Plato kuum, cmejen kuum, calabacita kuum, xplato, ’kuumLikely Cucurbita moschata Yucatán, Mexico Squash with 'pepita menuda' (Spanish) meaning 'thin seeds' Known as the 'little sister' to Cucurbita moschata Xnuk kuum. Xplato (Mayan-Spanish) literally translates to flat plate. Used for making a sweet called calabaza melada. [35]
Candy roaster [28] Cucurbita maxima Southern Appalachia Developed by the Cherokee people. A United States Department of Agriculture accession in 1960 notes that Candy Roasters had been grown for more than 100 years as of that date. [36] It is variable in size and shape with more than 40 distinct forms according to one authority. [37] Candy roasters consistently feature fine-textured orange flesh, while varying in size (from 10 lbs to more than 250 lbs); shape (including round, cylindrical, teardrop, and blocky); and color (pink, tan, green, blue, gray, and orange). [38]
Lakota squash Cucurbita maxima Nebraska Developed from a squash landrace grown by Native Americans living along the Missouri Valley along with germplasm from Hubbard squash or a similar cultivar [39]
Nanticoke squash [28] Cucurbita maxima Maryland and Delaware Cultivated by the Nanticoke (or Kuskarawaok) people, one of the southernmost groups in the Algonquin language family, who lived in the area now known as Maryland and Delaware during the American colonial period when Cucurbita maxima arrived in North America. The wide diversity of the fruit reflects the genetic diversity of the landrace. [31]
Seminole Pumpkin [28] Cucurbita moschata Florida A landrace originally cultivated by the Seminole people of what is now Florida. Naturalists recorded Seminole pumpkins hanging from trees in the 18th century. [40] [41]

Tomatillo

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Acorazado, Acorazonado, Queen of Malinalco , Reina de Malinalco Physalis ixocarpa Malinalco The name translates as "heart shaped", reflecting morphology which has also been described as "pointed or torpedo shaped", which is unusual for a tomatillo. The tomatillos taste fruity and sweet. [42]

Tomatoes

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Coeur de bue tomato [43]
Corborino tomato [43]
Lucariello tomato [43]
San Marzano tomato [43]

Wheat

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Arndeto [28]
Aybo [28]
Enat gebs [28]
Kurkure [28]
Loko [28]
Meher gebs [28]
Mengesha [28]
Nechita [28]
Sene gebs [28]
Set-Akuri [28]
Temej [28]
Tikur gebs [28]

Animals

Animal landrace development

Some standardized animal breeds originate from attempts to make landraces more consistent through selective breeding, and a landrace may become a more formal breed with the creation of a breed registry or publication of a breed standard. In such a case, one may think of the landrace as a "stage" in breed development. However, in other cases, formalizing a landrace may result in the genetic resource of a landrace being lost through crossbreeding. [2]

While many landrace animals are associated with farming, other domestic animals have been put to use as modes of transportation, as companion animals, for sporting purposes, and for other non-farming uses, so their geographic distribution may differ. For example, horse landraces are less common because human use of them for transport has meant that they have moved with people more commonly and constantly than most other domestic animals, reducing the incidence of populations locally genetically isolated for extensive periods of time. [2]

Examples of animal landraces

Cats

Many standardized breeds have rather recently (within a century or less) been derived from landraces. Examples, often called natural breeds, include Arabian Mau, Egyptian Mau, Korat, Kurilian Bobtail, Maine Coon, Manx, Norwegian Forest Cat, Siberian, and Siamese.

In some cases, such as the Turkish Angora and Turkish Van breeds and their possible derivation from the Van cat landrace, the relationships are not entirely clear.

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Cyprus
Aegean
Domestic long-haired
Domestic short-haired
Kellas
Sokoke
Thai Thailand The ancestor of the Siamese cat breed, among many others.
Van cat Turkey The Van cat of modern-day Turkey is a landrace of symbolic and (disputed) cultural value to Turks, Armenians and Kurds.

Cattle

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Icelandic cattle Iceland As a population dating from the era of Icelandic settlement they are likely the oldest cattle landrace in Europe, owing to their genetic isolation for most of that time. [44]
Yakutian cattle Sakha Republic, Russian Federation Noted as the northernmost cattle landrace, and the most genetically dissimilar to other cattle. [45] [46] This group of cattle may represent a fourth Aurochs domestication event (and a third event among Bos taurus–type aurochs) and may have diverged from the Near East group some 35,000 years ago. [47] Yakutian cattle are the last remaining native Turano-Mongolian cattle breed in Siberia, [45] and one of only a few pure Turano-Mongolian breeds remaining worldwide. [46] Studies of DNA markers on autosomes show a high genetic distinctiveness and point to a long-term genetic isolation from other breeds; geographic isolation beyond the normal northern limit of the species range can be assumed to be the cause. [48] [49]

Dogs

Dog landraces and the selectively bred dog breeds that follow breed standards vary widely depending on their origins and purpose. [50] Landraces are distinguished from dog breeds which have breed standards, breed clubs and registries. [51]

Landrace dogs have more variety in their appearance than do standardized dog breeds. [51] An example of a dog landrace with a related standardized breed with a similar name is the collie. The Scotch Collie is a landrace, while the Rough Collie and the Border Collie are standardized breeds. They can be very different in appearance, though the Rough Collie in particular was developed from the Scotch Collie by inbreeding to fix certain highly desired traits. In contrast to the landrace, in the various standardized Collie breeds, purebred individuals closely match a breed-standard appearance but might have lost other useful characteristics and have developed undesirable traits linked to inbreeding. [52]

The ancient landrace dogs of the Fertile Crescent that led to the Saluki breed excels in running down game across open tracts of hot desert, but conformation-bred individuals of the breed are not necessarily able to chase and catch desert hares.[ citation needed ]

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Africanis Southern AfricaDogs that migrated with Bantu tribes into Southern Africa. The dogs were free to mates amongst themselves without any selective breeding.
Carolina Dog or Yellow Dog United States Developed from dogs originally from Asia [53] this landrace has been the basis of the Carolina Dog standardized breed.
Scotch Collie Scotland The Rough Collie was bred from the Scotch Collie landrace. [52]
St. John's water dog Newfoundland, Canada Served as the foundational stock for a number of purpose-bred dogs, such as the Labrador Retriever, Chesapeake Bay Retriever, Cape Shore Water Dog, and Newfoundland.
Saluki Fertile Crescent

Goats

Some standardized breeds that are derived from landraces include the Dutch Landrace, Swedish Landrace and Finnish Landrace goats. The Danish Landrace is a modern mix of three different breeds, one of which was a "Landrace"-named breed.

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
British primitive goat British Isles Dates to the Neolithic era and possibly has existed as feral herds continuously since that time.
Icelandic goat Iceland Can be dated to the Icelandic Age of Settlement and the population is presumed to have been genetically isolated for nearly the entirety of that time period
Spanish goat Spain This landrace survives in larger numbers in the American South as the "brush goat" or "scrub goat", among other names than in Spain.

Sheep

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Barbados Blackbelly Barbados
Icelandic sheep Iceland
Shetland sheep Shetland Isles, Scotland
Spælsau sheep Norway Dates to the Iron Age
Welsh mountain sheep Wales

Horses

The wild progenitor of the domestic horse is extinct. [2] It is rare for landraces among domestic horses to remain isolated, due to human use of horses for transportation, thus causing horses to move from one local population to another.

The heavy 'draft' type of domestic horse, developed in Europe, has differentiated into many separate landraces or breeds.[ citation needed ] Examples of horse landraces also include insular populations in Greece and Indonesia, and, on a broader scale, New World populations derived from the founder stock of Colonial Spanish horse. [2]

The Yakutian and Mongolian Horses of Asia have "unimproved" characteristics. [54]

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Icelandic horse [2] Iceland
Newfoundland pony Newfoundland
Shetland pony Shetland

Pigs

The standardized swine breeds named "Landrace" are often not actually landraces or derived from landraces. The Danish Landrace pig breed, pedigreed in 1896 from an actual local landrace, is the principal ancestor of the American Landrace (1930s). In this way, the Swedish Landrace is derived from the Danish and from other Scandinavian breeds, as is the British Landrace breed.

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Baudin pig Kangaroo Island, South Australia Once a feral landrace, it is now extinct in the wild.
Mulefoot pig [2] The Mulefoot pig originated as a landrace, but has been standardized since the early 1900s.
Lindröd pig Skåne, Sweden The breed originates from a population at Skånes Djurpark, that was found on Linderödsåsen in the 1950s. It is thought to be the last remaining population of an older breed of pigs kept in the deciduous forests of southern Sweden. [55]

Chicken

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Danish hen Denmark
Icelandic chicken Iceland
Jærhøns Norway
Swedish flower hen Sweden
Shetland hen Scotland

Ducks

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Danish landrace duck Denmark The modern Danish landrace duck is noted to be somewhat inbred. [56]
Swedish Blue duck Sweden A modern breed of the same name is derived from the landrace.

Geese

Many standardized goose breeds named "Landrace", e.g. the Twente Landrace goose, are not actually true landraces, but may be derived from them.

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Danish landrace goose Denmark
Pilgrim goose New England This landrace is associated with the Mayflower Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony, and has also been standardised as a formal breed since 1939. It is thought to descend from western European stock dating of the 17th century. [57]

Rabbits

NameSpeciesOriginDescription
Gotland rabbit Gotland This landrace is subject to conservation efforts.
Mellerud rabbit Sweden This landrace is subject to conservation efforts.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monoculture</span> Farms producing only one crop at a time

In agriculture, monoculture is the practice of growing one crop species in a field at a time. Monocultures increase ease and efficiency in planting, managing, and harvesting crops short-term, often with the help of machinery. However, monocultures are more susceptible to diseases or pest outbreaks long-term due to localized reductions in biodiversity and nutrient depletion. Crop diversity can be added both in time, as with a crop rotation or sequence, or in space, with a polyculture or intercropping.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quinoa</span> Edible plant in the family Amaranthaceae

Quinoa is a flowering plant in the amaranth family. It is a herbaceous annual plant grown as a crop primarily for its edible seeds; the seeds are rich in protein, dietary fiber, B vitamins and dietary minerals in amounts greater than in many grains. Quinoa is not a grass but rather a pseudocereal botanically related to spinach and amaranth, and originated in the Andean region of northwestern South America. It was first used to feed livestock 5,200–7,000 years ago, and for human consumption 3,000–4,000 years ago in the Lake Titicaca basin of Peru and Bolivia.

<i>Ex situ</i> conservation Preservation of plants or animals outside their natural habitats

Ex situ conservation is the process of protecting an endangered species, variety, or breed of plant or animal outside its natural habitat. For example, by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, an artificial environment which is similar to the natural habitat of the respective animal and within the care of humans, such as a zoological park or wildlife sanctuary. The degree to which humans control or modify the natural dynamics of the managed population varies widely, and this may include alteration of living environments, reproductive patterns, access to resources, and protection from predation and mortality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breed</span> Specific group of domestic animals

A breed is a specific group of breedable domestic animals having homogeneous appearance (phenotype), homogeneous behavior, and/or other characteristics that distinguish it from other organisms of the same species. In literature, there exist several slightly deviating definitions. Breeds are formed through genetic isolation and either natural adaptation to the environment or selective breeding, or a combination of the two. Despite the centrality of the idea of "breeds" to animal husbandry and agriculture, no single, scientifically accepted definition of the term exists. A breed is therefore not an objective or biologically verifiable classification but is instead a term of art amongst groups of breeders who share a consensus around what qualities make some members of a given species members of a nameable subset.

Dwarfing is a process in which a breed of animals or cultivar of plants is changed to become significantly smaller than standard members of their species. The effect can be induced through human intervention or non-human processes, and can include genetic, nutritional or hormonal means. Used most specifically, dwarfing includes pathogenic changes in the structure of an organism, in contrast to non-pathogenic proportional reduction in stature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural biodiversity</span> Agricultural concept

Agricultural biodiversity or agrobiodiversity is a subset of general biodiversity pertaining to agriculture. It can be defined as "the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels that sustain the ecosystem structures, functions and processes in and around production systems, and that provide food and non-food agricultural products.” It is managed by farmers, pastoralists, fishers and forest dwellers, agrobiodiversity provides stability, adaptability and resilience and constitutes a key element of the livelihood strategies of rural communities throughout the world. Agrobiodiversity is central to sustainable food systems and sustainable diets. The use of agricultural biodiversity can contribute to food security, nutrition security, and livelihood security, and it is critical for climate adaptation and climate mitigation.

F1 hybrid (also known as filial 1 hybrid) is the first filial generation of offspring of distinctly different parental types. F1 hybrids are used in genetics, and in selective breeding, where the term F1 crossbreed may be used. The term is sometimes written with a subscript, as F1 hybrid. Subsequent generations are called F2, F3, etc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seed saving</span> Practice of saving plant reproductive material

In agriculture and gardening, seed saving is the practice of saving seeds or other reproductive material from vegetables, grain, herbs, and flowers for use from year to year for annuals and nuts, tree fruits, and berries for perennials and trees. This is the traditional way farms and gardens were maintained for the last 12,000 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Germplasm</span> Genetic material of an organism

Germplasm refers to genetic resources such as seeds, tissues, and DNA sequences that are maintained for the purpose of animal and plant breeding, conservation efforts, agriculture, and other research uses. These resources may take the form of seed collections stored in seed banks, trees growing in nurseries, animal breeding lines maintained in animal breeding programs or gene banks. Germplasm collections can range from collections of wild species to elite, domesticated breeding lines that have undergone extensive human selection. Germplasm collection is important for the maintenance of biological diversity, food security, and conservation efforts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heirloom plant</span> Historic food crop cultivar

An heirloom plant, heirloom variety, heritage fruit, or heirloom vegetable is an old cultivar of a plant used for food that is grown and maintained by gardeners and farmers, particularly in isolated communities of the Western world. These were commonly grown during earlier periods in human history, but are not used in modern large-scale agriculture.

Genetic erosion is a process where the limited gene pool of an endangered species diminishes even more when reproductive individuals die off before reproducing with others in their endangered low population. The term is sometimes used in a narrow sense, such as when describing the loss of particular alleles or genes, as well as being used more broadly, as when referring to the loss of a phenotype or whole species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rare breed</span> Breed of poultry or livestock that has a very small breeding population

In modern agriculture, a rare breed is a breed of poultry or livestock that has a very small breeding population, usually from a few hundred to a few thousand. Because of their small numbers, rare breeds may have a threatened conservation status, and they may be protected under regional laws. Many countries have organizations devoted to the protection and promotion of rare breeds, for which they each have their own definition. In botany and horticulture, the parallel to rare animal breeds are heirloom plants, which are rare cultivars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crop wild relative</span> Wild plant closely related to a domesticated plant

A crop wild relative (CWR) is a wild plant closely related to a domesticated plant. It may be a wild ancestor of the domesticated (cultivated) plant or another closely related taxon.

Crop diversity or crop biodiversity is the variety and variability of crops, plants used in agriculture, including their genetic and phenotypic characteristics. It is a subset of a specific element of agricultural biodiversity. Over the past 50 years, there has been a major decline in two components of crop diversity; genetic diversity within each crop and the number of species commonly grown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant breeding</span> Humans changing traits, ornamental/crops

Plant breeding is the science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desired characteristics. It is used to improve the quality of plant products for use by humans and animals. The goals of plant breeding are to produce crop varieties that boast unique and superior traits for a variety of applications. The most frequently addressed agricultural traits are those related to biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, grain or biomass yield, end-use quality characteristics such as taste or the concentrations of specific biological molecules and ease of processing.

Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture, particularly the domestication of the first agricultural plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially, early human farmers selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics and used these as a seed source for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of characteristics over time. In time however, experiments began with deliberate hybridization, the science and understanding of which was greatly enhanced by the work of Gregor Mendel. Mendel's work ultimately led to the new science of genetics. Modern plant breeding is applied genetics, but its scientific basis is broader, covering molecular biology, cytology, systematics, physiology, pathology, entomology, chemistry, and statistics (biometrics). It has also developed its own technology. Plant breeding efforts are divided into a number of different historical landmarks.

Climate change in Mexico is expected to have widespread impacts: with significant decreases in precipitation and increases in temperatures. This will put pressure on the economy, people and the biodiversity of many parts of the country, which have largely arid or hot climates. Already climate change has impacted agriculture, biodiversity, farmer livelihoods, and migration, as well as water, health, air pollution, traffic disruption from floods, and housing vulnerability to landslides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture</span>

Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture (AnGR), also known as farm animal genetic resources or livestock biodiversity, are genetic resources of avian and mammalian species, which are used for food and agriculture purposes. AnGR is a subset of and a specific element of agricultural biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant genetic resources</span>

Plant genetic resources describe the variability within plants that comes from human and natural selection over millennia. Their intrinsic value mainly concerns agricultural crops.

Genetic resources means genetic material of actual or potential value where genetic material means any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity... Genetic resources thus refer to the part of genetic diversity that has or could have practical use, such as in plant breeding. The term was introduced by Otto Frankel and Erna Bennett for a technical conference on the exploration, utilization and conservation of plant genetic resources, organized by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the International Biological Program (IBP), held in Rome, Italy, 18–26 September 1967.

References

  1. ↑ Deynze, Allen Van; Zamora, Pablo; Delaux, Pierre-Marc; Heitmann, Cristobal; Jayaraman, Dhileepkumar; Rajasekar, Shanmugam; Graham, Danielle; Maeda, Junko; Gibson, Donald; Schwartz, Kevin D.; Berry, Alison M.; Bhatnagar, Srijak; Jospin, Guillaume; Darling, Aaron; Jeannotte, Richard (2018-08-07). "Nitrogen fixation in a landrace of maize is supported by a mucilage-associated diazotrophic microbiota". PLOS Biology . 16 (8): e2006352. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2006352 . ISSN   1545-7885. PMC   6080747 . PMID   30086128.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Sponenberg, D. Phillip (May 18, 2000). "Genetic Resources and Their Conservation". In Bowling, Ann T.; Ruvinsky, Anatoly (eds.). The Genetics of the Horse. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI Publishing. pp. 392–393. ISBN   978-0-85199-429-1 . Retrieved September 28, 2014.
  3. ↑ Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. "Reviewing the Roles of Animal Genetic Resources and Options for Their Conservation" (PDF). In Vivo Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources. FAO Animal Production and Health Guidelines. UN Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. 4–5. ISSN   1810-0708.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Jones, Huw; Lister, Diane L.; Bower, Mim A.; Leigh, Fiona J.; Smith, Lydia M.; Jones, Martin K. (August 2008). "Approaches and Constraints of Using Existing Landrace Material to Understand Agricultural Spread in Prehistory". Plant Genetic Resources . 6 (2): 98–112. doi:10.1017/S1479262108993138. S2CID   86662605. Archived from the original on 2008-05-14. Retrieved August 6, 2014. The copy at this URL is missing the author information but provides full text otherwise; that information is available in this official online abstract.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Camacho Villa, Taina Carolina; Maxted, Nigel; Scholten, Maria; Ford-Lloyd, Brian (December 2005). "Defining and Identifying Crop Landraces". Plant Genetic Resources . 3 (3): 373–384. doi:10.1079/PGR200591. S2CID   5234510.
  6. 1 2 3 Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. "Glossary of Selected Terms" (PDF). In Vivo Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources. FAO Animal Production and Health Guidelines. UN Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. xv–xx. ISSN   1810-0708.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Zeven, A. C. (1998). "Landraces: A Review of Definitions and classifications". Euphytica . 104 (2): 127–139. doi:10.1023/A:1018683119237. S2CID   20631394. Abstract and first two pages are available for free access.
  8. 1 2 Breton Olson, Meryl; Morris, Katlyn S.; Méndez, V. Ernesto (2012). "Cultivation of Maize Landraces by Small-scale Shade Coffee Farmers in Western El Salvador" (PDF). Agricultural Systems . 111 (111): 63–74. Bibcode:2012AgSys.111...63O. doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2012.05.005.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Andersen, Regine (April 2010). "An Issue of Survival". Development & Cooperation. Internationale Weiterbildung und Entwicklung. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
  10. 1 2 "Irish Landraces". Waterford, Ireland: National Biodiversity Data Centre. 2012. Archived from the original on 2014-01-02. Retrieved August 7, 2014.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Harlan, J. R. (1975). Crops and Man. Madison, Wisconsin: American Society of Agronomy and Crop Science Society of America.[ page needed ]
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Friis-Hansen, Esbern; Sthapit, Bhuwon, eds. (2000). Participatory Approaches to the Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources. Rome, Italy: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. p. 199. ISBN   978-92-9043-444-3.
  13. ↑ Harlan, Jack R. (1971). "Agricultural Origins: Centers and Noncenters: Agriculture May Originate in Discrete Centers or Evolve Over Vast Areas Without Definable Centers". Science . 174 (4008): 468–474. doi:10.1126/science.174.4008.468. JSTOR   1733521. PMID   17745730. S2CID   24239918.
  14. 1 2 "Landrace". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House. 2014. Retrieved August 5, 2014. Based on the Random House Dictionary.
  15. ↑ Sponenberg, D. Phillip; Bixby, Donald E. (2007). Managing Breeds for a Secure Future: Strategies for Breeders and Breed Associations. Pittsboro, North Carolina: American Livestock Breeds Conservancy. pp. 8–10. ISBN   9781887316071.
  16. ↑ "The British Landrace: Breed History". BritishPigs.org.uk. Trumpington, Cambridgeshire, UK: British Pig Association. 2014. Archived from the original on 20 November 2014. Retrieved 30 September 2014.
  17. 1 2 3 Ramanandan, P. (1997). "Pigeonpea: Genetic Resources". In Nene, Y.L. (ed.). The Pigeonpea. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CAB International (CABI). pp. 89–116.
  18. ↑ "Section B. Landraces: B.1. Introduction" (PDF). Resource Book for the Preparation of National Plans for Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives and Landraces. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014.[ permanent dead link ]
  19. ↑ Ramsay, K.; Smuts, M.; Els, H. C. (2000). "Adding Value to South African Landrace Breeds Conservation through Utilisation" (PDF). Animal Genetic Resources Information. 27 (27): 9–15. doi:10.1017/S1014233900001243.[ permanent dead link ]
  20. ↑ Simmons, Paula; Ekarius, Carol (2009) [2001]. ""Charollais"". Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep (New ed.). Storey Publishing. ISBN   9781603423908.
  21. ↑ "Picos de Europa". United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). April 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-03.
  22. 1 2 Ramirez-Villegas, Julian; Khoury, Colin K.; Achicanoy, Harold A.; Mendez, Andres C.; Diaz, Maria Victoria; Sosa, Chrystian C.; Debouck, Daniel G.; Kehel, Zakaria; Guarino, Luigi (2020). "A gap analysis modelling framework to prioritize collecting for ex situ conservation of crop landraces". Diversity and Distributions . 26 (6): 730–742. Bibcode:2020DivDi..26..730R. doi: 10.1111/ddi.13046 . ISSN   1366-9516. JSTOR   26914952. S2CID   216486179.
  23. 1 2 Andreani, L.; Camerini, G.; Delogu, C.; Fibiani, M.; Lo Scalzo, R.; Manelli, E. (2022-03-01). "How to save a landrace from extinction: the example of a winter squash landrace (Cucurbita maxima Duchesne) in Northern Italy (Lungavilla-Pavia)". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution . 69 (3): 1163–1178. doi:10.1007/s10722-021-01294-2. ISSN   1573-5109. S2CID   244432667.
  24. ↑ Bonjean, Alain P.; Angus, William J., eds. (2001). The World Wheat Book: A History of Wheat Breeding. Vol. 1. Paris, France: Lavoisier/Intercept. ISBN   978-1898298724.[ page needed ]
  25. 1 2 3 Gibson, Richard W. (2009). "A Review of Perceptual Distinctiveness in Landraces Including an Analysis of How Its Roles Have Been Overlooked in Plant Breeding for Low-Input Farming Systems". Economic Botany . 63 (3): 242–255. doi:10.1007/s12231-009-9086-3. ISSN   0013-0001. JSTOR   27807238. S2CID   41869355.
  26. ↑ Wingen, Luzie U; West, Claire; Leverington-Waite, Michelle; Collier, Sarah; Orford, Simon; Goram, Richard; Yang, Cai-Yun; King, Julie; Allen, Alexandra M; Burridge, Amanda; Edwards, Keith J; Griffiths, Simon (2017-04-01). "Wheat Landrace Genome Diversity". Genetics. 205 (4): 1657–1676. doi:10.1534/genetics.116.194688. ISSN   1943-2631. PMC   5378120 . PMID   28213475.
  27. 1 2 Bohra, Abhishek; Kilian, Benjamin; Sivasankar, Shoba; Caccamo, Mario; Mba, Chikelu; McCouch, Susan; Varshney, Rajeev (2021). "Reap the crop wild relatives for breeding future crops". Trends in Biotechnology . 40 (4). Cell Press: 1–20. doi: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2021.08.009 . ISSN   0167-7799. PMID   34629170. S2CID   238580339.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Dwivedi, Sangam; Goldman, Irwin; Ortiz, Rodomiro (August 2019). "Pursuing the Potential of Heirloom Cultivars to Improve Adaptation, Nutritional, and Culinary Features of Food Crops". Agronomy . 9 (8): 441. doi: 10.3390/agronomy9080441 . ISSN   2073-4395.
  29. ↑ Mallor, Cristina; Barberán, Miguel; Aibar, Joaquín (2018). "Recovery of a Common Bean Landrace (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) for Commercial Purposes". Frontiers in Plant Science . 9: 1440. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01440 . ISSN   1664-462X. PMC   6209639 . PMID   30410497.
  30. ↑ Signore, Angelo; Renna, Massimiliano; D'Imperio, Massimiliano; Serio, Francesco; Santamaria, Pietro (2018). "Preliminary Evidences of Biofortification with Iodine of "Carota di Polignano", An Italian Carrot Landrace". Frontiers in Plant Science . 9: 170. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00170 . ISSN   1664-462X. PMC   5819054 . PMID   29497433.
  31. 1 2 Roach, Margaret (2022-01-13). "Where Adventurous Gardeners Buy Their Seeds". The New York Times . ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  32. 1 2 Muñoz-Concha, Diego; Quiñones, Ximena; Hernández, Juan Pablo; Romero, Sebastián (October 2020). "Chili Pepper Landrace Survival and Family Farmers in Central Chile". Agronomy . 10 (10): 1541. doi: 10.3390/agronomy10101541 . ISSN   2073-4395.
  33. 1 2 "The Landrace Chiles of Northern New Mexico". New Mexico State University . Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  34. ↑ Joshi, B. K.; Ayer, D. K.; Gauchan, D.; Jarvis, D. (2020-10-13). "Concept and rationale of evolutionary plant breeding and its status in Nepal". Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University : 1–11. doi: 10.3126/jafu.v4i1.47023 . ISSN   2594-3146. S2CID   231832089.
  35. ↑ Lope-Alzina, Diana Gabriela (March 2007). "Gendered production spaces and crop varietal selection: Case study in Yucatán, Mexico: Gendered production spaces and varietal selection, Yucatán". Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography . 28 (1): 21–38. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9493.2006.00274.x.
  36. ↑ Plant Inventory No. 168. United States Department of Agriculture. 1967.
  37. ↑ Best, Bill (2013-04-15). Saving Seeds, Preserving Taste: Heirloom Seed Savers in Appalachia. Ohio University Press. ISBN   978-0-8214-4462-7.
  38. ↑ Dwivedi, Sangam; Goldman, Irwin; Ortiz, Rodomiro (August 2019). "Pursuing the Potential of Heirloom Cultivars to Improve Adaptation, Nutritional, and Culinary Features of Food Crops". Agronomy . 9 (8): 441. doi: 10.3390/agronomy9080441 . ISSN   2073-4395.
  39. ↑ Coyne, Dermot; Reiser, J. M.; Sutton, Lisa; Graham, Alice (1995-01-01). "'Lakota' Winter Squash, A Cultivar Derived from Native American Sources in Nebraska". Agronomy & Horticulture .
  40. ↑ Castetter, Edward F. (1930). "Species Crosses in the Genus Cucurbita". American Journal of Botany . 17 (1): 41–57. doi:10.2307/2446379. ISSN   0002-9122. JSTOR   2446379.
  41. ↑ "Seminole Pumpkin". ECHOcommunity. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  42. ↑ "The Queen of Tomatillos: Reina de Malinalco". Masa Americana. 2022-07-25. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  43. 1 2 3 4 Baldina, Svetlana; Picarella, Maurizio E.; Troise, Antonio D.; Pucci, Anna; Ruggieri, Valentino; Ferracane, Rosalia; Barone, Amalia; Fogliano, Vincenzo; Mazzucato, Andrea (2016). "Metabolite Profiling of Italian Tomato Landraces with Different Fruit Types". Frontiers in Plant Science . 7: 664. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00664 . ISSN   1664-462X. PMC   4872001 . PMID   27242865.
  44. ↑ "Florida Cracker and Pineywoods Cattle". Hobby Farms. 2012. Archived from the original on March 5, 2012. Retrieved May 25, 2012.
  45. 1 2 Tapio, Ilma; Tapio, Miika; Li, Meng-Hua; Popov, Ruslan; Ivanova, Zoya; Kantanen, Juha (13 July 2010). "Estimation of relatedness among non-pedigreed Yakutian cryo-bank bulls using molecular data: implications for conservation and breed management". Genetics Selection Evolution . 42 (1): 28. doi: 10.1186/1297-9686-42-28 . PMC   2909159 . PMID   20626845.
  46. 1 2 Kantanen, J.; Edwards, C. J.; Bradley, D. G.; Viinalass, H.; Thessler, S.; Ivanova, Z.; Kiselyova, T.; Ćinkulov, M.; Popov, R.; Stojanović, S.; Ammosov, I.; Vilkki, J. (2009). "Maternal and paternal genealogy of Eurasian taurine cattle (Bos taurus)". Heredity . 103 (5). Nature Portfolio (The Genetics Society): 404–415. doi: 10.1038/hdy.2009.68 . PMID   19603063.
  47. ↑ Hideyuki Mannen; et al. (August 2004). "Independent mitochondrial origin and historical genetic differentiation in North Eastern Asian cattle" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution . 32 (2): 539–544. Bibcode:2004MolPE..32..539M. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.01.010. PMID   15223036. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  48. ↑ Juha Kantanen (30 December 2009): "Article of the month – The Yakutian cattle: A cow of the permafrost." Archived 2020-03-10 at the Wayback Machine GlobalDiv Newsletter , 2009, issue no. 12, pp. 3–6. 1 picture. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
  49. ↑ genomic-resources ENAC (14 August 2012): "Success case study – Yakutian Cattle in the land of permafrost." 1 picture. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
  50. ↑ Lord, Kathryn; Coppinger, Lorna; Coppinger, Raymond (2013). Grandin, Temple; Deesing, Mark J. (eds.). Differences in the Behavior of Landraces and Breeds of Dogs (2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 195–235. ISBN   9780124055087 . Retrieved August 13, 2014.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  51. 1 2 Dohner, Jan (December 6, 2013). "Choosing a Livestock Guard Dog Breed, Part Two". Mother Earth News . Archived from the original on 2014-08-14. Retrieved August 13, 2014.
  52. 1 2 Ward, Andy. "Landrace vs. Purebred Scotch Collies". Old-Time Farm Shepherd: Dedicated to Bringing Back the Old Scotch Collie of Yesterday. Old-time Scotch Collie Association.
  53. ↑ Van Asch, Barbara; Zhang, Ai-bing; Oskarsson, Mattias; Klütsch, Cornelya; Amorim, António; Savolainen, Peter (May 10, 2012). "MtDNA Analysis Confirms Early Pre-Columbian Origins of Native American Dogs". KTH Publication Database DiVA. Stockholm, Sweden: KTH Royal Institute of Technology . Retrieved July 10, 2013.
  54. ↑ Bonnie Lou Hendricks (1995), International encyclopedia of horse breeds, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN   978-0-8061-2753-8 , retrieved 2009-04-20
  55. ↑ Hansson, Monica. "Linderödsgrisen - en inventering av populationsstruktur och produktionsnivå" (PDF). Swedish university of agriculture. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
  56. ↑ "Den danske landand [The Danish landrace duck]" (in Danish). Foreningen gamle danske husdyrracer. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
  57. ↑ Nabhan, Gary Paul (April 2008). Renewing America's Food Traditions: Saving and Savoring the Continent's Most Endangered Foods. White River Junction, Vermont: Chelsea Green. ISBN   9781933392899 . Retrieved 7 August 2014.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.