A juniper berry is the female seed cone produced by the various species of junipers. It is not a true berry but a cone with unusually fleshy and merged scales called a galbulus, which gives it a berry-like appearance. The cones from a handful of species, especially Juniperus communis , are used as a spice, particularly in European cuisine, and also give gin its distinctive flavour. Juniper berries are among the only spices derived from conifers, [1] along with spruce buds. [2]
Unlike the separated and woody scales of a typical pine cone, those in a juniper berry remain fleshy and merge into a unified covering surrounding the seeds. Juniper berries are sometimes regarded as arils, [3] like the berry-like cones of yews. Juniperus communis berries vary from 4 millimetres (1⁄8 inch) to 12 millimetres (1⁄2 inch) in diameter; other species are mostly similar in size, though some are larger, notably J. drupacea (20–28 mm or 3⁄4–1+1⁄8 in). The berries are green when young and mature to purple-black over about 18 months in most species, including J. communis. Maturation occurs from as little as 8–10 months in some species up to over 24 months in J. drupacea. [4] The mature, dark berries are usually (but not exclusively) used in cuisine, while gin is flavoured with fully grown, unripe berries. [1]
Juniper berries contain diverse phytochemicals, including an essential oil in about 2% volume, a flavonoid called juniperin, resins (about 10% of volume), proteins, and acetic, malic and formic acids. [5] From extracts of the berries, fatty acids, terpenes, aromatic compounds, and hydrocarbons, such as pinene, sabinene, terpinen-4-ol, limonene, and myrcene, were isolated. [5]
While classified as generally recognized as safe in the United States, [6] juniper berries may have various side effects that have not been tested extensively in clinical trials. [5] [7] Mainly due to an increased risk of miscarriage, even in small doses, consuming juniper berries may affect pregnant or breastfeeding women, and people with diabetes, bleeding disorders or after surgery. [5] In traditional medicine, juniper berries were thought to be useful for female birth control. [8]
Allergic reactions are possible. [5] Consuming large amounts of juniper berries may cause catharsis, convulsions, or harm kidney function. [5] The berries of some species, such as J. sabina , are toxic. [9]
The berries of some juniper species are considered too bitter to eat. In addition to J. communis and J. drupacea , [4] [10] edible species include J. phoenicea , [11] J. deppeana , and J. californica . [12]
The flavor profile of young, green berries is dominated by pinene; as they mature this piney, resinous backdrop is joined by what Harold McGee describes as "green-fresh" and citrus notes. [13] The outer scales of the berries are relatively flavourless, so the berries are almost always at least lightly crushed before being used as a spice. They are used both fresh and dried, but their flavour and odour are at their strongest immediately after harvest and decline during drying and storage.
Juniper berries are used in northern European and particularly Scandinavian cuisine to, according to one source, "impart a sharp, clear flavor" [1] [5] to meat dishes, especially wild birds (including thrush, blackbird, and woodcock) and game meats (including boar and venison). [14] They also season pork, cabbage, and sauerkraut dishes. Traditional recipes for choucroute garnie, an Alsatian dish of sauerkraut and meats, universally include juniper berries. [15] Besides Norwegian, Danish and Swedish dishes, juniper berries are also sometimes used in German, Austrian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian cuisine, often with roasts (such as German sauerbraten ). Northern Italian cuisine, especially that of the South Tyrol, also incorporates juniper berries. They are also used in the Italian region of Apulia, especially to flavour brines.
Juniper, typically J. communis, is used to flavor gin, a liquor developed in the 17th century in the Netherlands. [5] The name gin itself is derived from either the French genièvre or the Dutch jenever , both of which mean "juniper". [1] Other juniper-flavoured beverages include the Finnish rye-and-juniper beer known as sahti, which is flavored with both juniper berries and branches. [16]
Another drink made from the berries is a julmust , a soft drink made in Sweden mainly sold during Christmas.
A few North American juniper species produce a seed cone with a sweeter, less resinous flavor than those typically used as a spice. For example, one field guide describes the flesh of the berries of J. californica as "dry, mealy, and fibrous but sweet and without resin cells". [12] Such species have been used not just as a seasoning but as a nutritive food by some Native Americans. [8] The berries also have medicinal uses. For example, the Blackfoot used juniper berry tea to cure vomiting, [17] while Crow women drank juniper berry tea after childbirth to increase cleansing and healing. [18] In addition to medicinal and culinary purposes, Native Americans have also used the seeds inside juniper berries as beads for jewellery and decoration. [8]
An essential oil extracted from juniper berries is used in aromatherapy, both for body massage, diffusion, and perfumery. [11]
Juniper berries, including Juniperus phoenicea and J. oxycedrus , have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs at multiple sites. J. oxycedrus is not known to grow in Egypt, and neither is J. excelsa , which was found along with J. oxycedrus in the tomb of Tutankhamun. [19] The berries imported into Egypt may have come from Greece; the Greeks record using juniper berries as a medicine long before mentioning their use in food. [20]
The Greeks used the berries in many of their Olympics events because of their belief that the berries increased physical stamina in athletes. [21]
The Romans used juniper berries as a cheap domestically produced substitute for the expensive black pepper and long pepper imported from India. [11] It was also used as an adulterant, as reported in Pliny the Elder's Natural History : "pepper is adulterated with juniper berries, which have the property, to a marvellous degree, of assuming the pungency of pepper". [22] Pliny also incorrectly asserted that black pepper grew on trees that were "very similar in appearance to our junipers".
The berries were an integral part of Desert Serrano (Vanyume) culture and grew throughout the Mojave River region. The major village of Wá’peat was derived from the Serrano word for juniper berries, wa'at. [23]
Gin is a distilled alcoholic drink flavoured with juniper berries and other botanical ingredients.
Junipers are coniferous trees and shrubs in the genus Juniperus of the cypress family Cupressaceae. Depending on the taxonomy, between 50 and 67 species of junipers are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere as far south as tropical Africa, including the Arctic, parts of Asia, and Central America. The highest-known juniper forest occurs at an altitude of 4,900 metres (16,100 ft) in southeastern Tibet and the northern Himalayas, creating one of the highest tree lines on earth.
Allspice, also known as Jamaica pepper, myrtle pepper, pimenta, or pimento, is the dried unripe berry of Pimenta dioica, a midcanopy tree native to the Greater Antilles, southern Mexico, and Central America, now cultivated in many warm parts of the world. The name allspice was coined as early as 1621 by the English, who valued it as a spice that combined the flavours of cinnamon, nutmeg, and clove. Contrary to common knowledge, it is not a mixture of spices.
Juniperus communis, the common juniper, is a species of small tree or shrub in the cypress family Cupressaceae. An evergreen conifer, it has the largest geographical range of any woody plant, with a circumpolar distribution throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere.
Angelica archangelica, commonly known as angelica, garden angelica, wild celery, and Norwegian angelica, is a biennial plant from the family Apiaceae, a subspecies of which is cultivated for its sweetly scented edible stems and roots. Like several other species in Apiaceae, its appearance is similar to several poisonous species, and should not be consumed unless it has been identified with absolute certainty. Synonyms include Archangelica officinalisHoffm. and Angelica officinalisMoench.
Juniperus oxycedrus, vernacularly called Cade, cade juniper, prickly juniper, prickly cedar, or sharp cedar, is a species of juniper, native across the Mediterranean region, growing on a variety of rocky sites from sea level. The specific epithet oxycedrus means "sharp cedar" and this species may have been the original cedar or cedrus of the ancient Greeks.
Juniperus osteosperma is a shrub or small tree native to the southwestern United States.
Juniperus drupacea, the Syrian juniper, is a species of juniper native to the eastern Mediterranean region from southern Greece, southern Turkey, western Syria, and Lebanon, growing on rocky sites from 800–1,700 metres in altitude. The species is the sole member of Juniperus sect. Caryocedrus., which is sometimes recognised as genus Arceuthos.
Juniperus californica, the California juniper, is a species of juniper native to southwestern North America.
Piper cubeba, cubeb or tailed pepper is a plant in genus Piper, cultivated for its fruit and essential oil. It is mostly grown in Java and Sumatra, hence sometimes called Java pepper. The fruits are gathered before they are ripe, and carefully dried. Commercial cubeb consists of the dried berries, similar in appearance to black pepper, but with stalks attached – the "tails" in "tailed pepper". The dried pericarp is wrinkled, and its color ranges from grayish brown to black. The seed is hard, white and oily. The odor of cubeb is described as agreeable and aromatic and the taste as pungent, acrid, slightly bitter and persistent. It has been described as tasting like allspice, or like a cross between allspice and black pepper.
Juniperus occidentalis, known as the western juniper, is a shrub or tree native to the Western United States, growing in mountains at altitudes of 800–3,000 meters (2,600–9,800 ft) and rarely down to 100 m (330 ft). It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List because it is a widespread species with an increasing population.
Juniperus cedrus, the Canary Islands juniper, is a species of juniper, native to the western Canary Islands and Madeira, where it occurs at altitudes of 500–2400 m. It is closely related to Juniperus oxycedrus of the Mediterranean region and Juniperus brevifolia of the Azores.
Juniperus deppeana is a small to medium-sized tree reaching 10–15 metres in height. It is native to central and northern Mexico and the southwestern United States.
Juniperus phoenicea, the Phoenicean juniper or Arâr, is a juniper found throughout the Mediterranean region.
Juniperus brevifolia, the Azores juniper, is a species of juniper, endemic to the Azores, where it occurs at altitudes of 240–800 metres, rarely up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft). It is closely related to Juniperus oxycedrus of the Mediterranean region and Juniperus cedrus of the neighboring Macaronesian islands. It is threatened by habitat loss.
Juniperus rigida, the temple juniper, is a species of juniper, native to northern China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, and the far southeast of Russia, occurring at altitudes of 10–2,200 metres (33–7,218 ft). The species is also naturalized in the United States. It is closely related to Juniperus communis and Juniperus conferta, the latter sometimes treated as a variety or subspecies of J. rigida.
Juniperus macrocarpa is a species of juniper, native across the northern Mediterranean Region from southwestern Spain east to western Turkey and Cyprus, growing on coastal sand dunes from sea level up to 75 metres in altitude. A single, isolated tree is found further west, in a cliff in southern Portugal.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to herbs and spices:
There is a lack of clinical research assessing the efficacy and safety of juniper. There is evidence that the berries are abortifacient and since this is believed not to be due to the oil there must be other toxic constituents present. In view of this, use of juniper should not exceed levels specified in food legislation. Juniper is contra-indicated during pregnancy and should not be used during lactation. ... There is a lack of clinical safety and toxicity data for juniper and further investigation of these aspects is required.
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