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Monterey Formation

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Coordinates: 33°36′N 117°42′W / 33.6°N 117.7°W / 33.6; -117.7
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Monterey Formation
Stratigraphic range: Early to Late Miocene, 18–6 Ma
Outcrop of Monterey Formation, Gaviota State Park, California
Typesedimentary
Unit ofLos Angeles Basin
UnderliesSisquoc Formation, Capistrano Formation
OverliesRincon Formation
Lithology
PrimaryShale, sandstone
OtherDiatomite, oil shale
Location
Coordinates33°36′N 117°42′W / 33.6°N 117.7°W / 33.6; -117.7
Approximate paleocoordinates33°06′N 114°54′W / 33.1°N 114.9°W / 33.1; -114.9
Region California
Country United States
Type section
Named forMonterey, California
Upper Miocene Migeulito member exposed at Hazard Reef, Montana de Oro State Park. This is the first onshore outcrop of the Monterey Formation south of the Monterey Peninsula. Large exposures continue south along the coast, often associated with important oilfields.
Tar "volcano" in the old Carpinteria Asphalt mine. Heavy oil exudes from joint cracks in the upturned Monterey shale forming the floor of mine. 1906 photo, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 321
External image
image icon Out-of-phase detachment folds and low-angle faults in the Monterey Formation at “the Boathouse” section, Vandenberg Air Force Base
Fold in Monterey Formation
Fossil crab (Pinnixa galliheri), Monterey Formation, Pacific Grove, California. Carapace is about 3 cm. wide.
Diatomite (diatomaceous earth), Monterey Formation, from a diatomite quarry just south of Lompoc
Heavy oil saturated sandstone from a unit of the Monterey Formation.

The Monterey Formation is an extensive Miocene oil-rich geological sedimentary formation in California, with outcrops of the formation in parts of the California Coast Ranges, Peninsular Ranges, and on some of California's off-shore islands. The type locality is near the city of Monterey, California.[1] The Monterey Formation is the major source-rock for 37 to 38 billion barrels of oil in conventional traps such as sandstones.[2] This is most of California's known oil resources.[3] The Monterey has been extensively investigated and mapped for petroleum potential, and is of major importance for understanding the complex geological history of California. Its rocks are mostly highly siliceous strata that vary greatly in composition, stratigraphy, and tectono-stratigraphic history.

The US Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimated in 2014 that the 1,750 square mile Monterey Formation could, as an unconventional resource, yield about 600 million barrels of oil, from tight oil contained in the formation, down sharply from their 2011 estimate of a potential 15.4 billion barrels.[4][5] An independent review by the California Council on Science and Technology found both of these estimates to be "highly uncertain."[6] Despite intense industry efforts, there has been little success to date (2013) in producing Monterey-hosted tight oil/shale oil, except in places where it is already naturally fractured, and it may be many years, if ever, before the Monterey becomes a significant producer of shale oil.[7]

The Monterey Formation strata vary. Its lower Miocene members show indications of weak coastal upwelling, with fossil assemblages and calcareous-siliceous rocks formed from diatoms and coccolithophorids. Its middle and upper Miocene upwelling-rich assemblages, and its unique highly siliceous rocks from diatom-rich plankton, became diatomites, porcelainites, and banded cherts.[8] It generally dates to between 16 to 7 million years ago, but some sections are as early as 18 million years old or as young as 6 million years old. Most of the formation's sediments appear to represent siliceous shales deposited at the edge of the continental shelf or in abyssal plains in the lower to middle bathyal zone. These deep-sea sediments were brought to the surface via tectonic activity. A similar depositional environment and geologic history is known for the adjacent, contemporaneous Modelo Formation, which preserves a similar paleobiota.[9]

Shale oil resources and exploitation

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The Monterey formation has long been recognized as the primary source of the oil produced from other formations in Southern California; the Monterey itself has been very productive where it is naturally fractured. Since 2011, the possibility that hydraulic fracturing might make the Monterey Shale productive over large areas has gained widespread public attention.[10]

According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) in 2011, the 1,750-square-mile (4,500 km2) Monterey Shale Formation contained more than half of the United States's total estimated technically recoverable shale oil (tight oil contained in shale, as distinct from oil shale) resource, about 15.4 billion barrels (2.45×10^9 m3).[11] In 2012, the EIA revised its recoverable volume downward, to 13.7 billion barrels (2.18×10^9 m3).[12] As of 2013 advances in hydraulic fracturing commonly called "fracking," and the high price of oil resulted in spirited bidding by oil companies for leases. Occidental Petroleum and Venoco were reported to have been major players. The deposit lies 6,000 and 15,000 feet (1,800 and 4,600 m) below the surface.

A widely cited March 2013 study released by the University of Southern California (USC) estimated that if extensive resource play development of the Monterey through hydraulic fracturing were successful, it could generate as many as 2.8 million jobs and as much as $24.6 billion in state and local taxes.[13] However, observers have pointed out that as of 2012, however large its theoretical potential, no one as yet has succeeded in making the Monterey Shale widely economic through hydraulic fracturing; to date it has been economic only in those limited locations already naturally fractured.[14]

Richard Behl, a geology professor who heads the "Monterey And Related Sediments" (MARS) consortium at California State University Long Beach, said that "The [EIA] numbers probably were overblown, but it was a simple method and had an essence of truth." Compared to other shale oil plays, the Monterey formation is much thicker and more laterally extensive, but also much more geologically complex and deformed. See the linked photos from a field trip to Monterey outcrops at Vandenberg Air Force Base. "To say California geology is complex is an understatement. ... The Monterey play is no slam-dunk."[15] In 2013, Bakken shale-oil pioneer Harold Hamm said the Monterey "might have a lot of potential, but there are reasons why it’s not being produced."[16]

J. David Hughes, a Canadian geoscientist and Fellow of Post Carbon Institute, published a report[5] in December 2013 analyzing the assumptions behind the EIA's forecast of Monterey tight oil production and the USC's forecast of resulting job and tax revenue growth. He found the EIA report's assumptions on prospective well productivity to be "extremely optimistic," and the total estimate of 15.4 billion barrels of recoverable oil "highly overstated." He also found the USC study's assumption that development of the Monterey shale could increase California oil production as much as seven-fold to be "unfounded," and the economic projections regarding jobs and tax revenue to be "extremely suspect."[17]

Source rock

[edit]

The Monterey Formation is considered the source of 84% of the oil in known fields of the San Joaquin Basin, a total of 12.2 billion barrels of oil. Of this, 112 million barrels of oil in known fields is produced from the Monterey itself.[18]

The Monterey formation is the source for such giant oilfields as the Kern River, Elk Hills, Midway-Sunset Oil Field,[15] and probable source for the overlying North and South Belridge Oil Fields.

History

[edit]

Monterey Formation oil was discovered at the Orcutt Oil Field in the Santa Maria Basin of Santa Barbara County in 1901. This was quickly followed by other Monterey discoveries nearby, including the Cat Canyon Oil Field and Lompoc Oil Field. Each of these early Monterey discoveries depended on natural fractures in the Monterey.

The Monterey Formation is one of the reservoirs in the Elk Hills Oil Field as well as one of the reservoirs (Belridge Diatomite) of the Lost Hills Oil Field, both located in Kern County.[19]

Major Monterey production was also discovered in offshore oil fields, such as the South Ellwood Oil Field in the Santa Barbara Channel,[20] and the Point Arguello Field in the Santa Maria Basin.[21]: 3 

The North Shafter and Rose oil fields of Kern County, which produce primarily from the Monterey Formation, were discovered in 1983, but attempts to produce the oil have not been highly economic.[22] Some horizontal wells were drilled in the Rose field in the early 2000s, with 2,500-foot lateral lengths and single-stage open-hole fracs; the results were said to be improvements over vertical wells.[23]

Carbon dioxide injection has been tested in the Monterey shale, with mixed results. "The main problem was that the carbon dioxide didn't increase production as much as hoped. ... That could be because the rock formation is so jumbled up, it's hard to find the right spot in which to inject the carbon dioxide."[24]

Oil companies such as Occidental Petroleum are using acidizing to stimulate production in Monterey wells, and other companies are experimenting with proprietary mixes of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. "There's a lot of discussion around the Monterey Shale that it doesn't require fracking, that acidizing will be enough to open up the rock," said Chris Faulkner, chief executive officer of Breitling Oil and Gas.[25]

Opposition and regulation

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The Monterey Formation underlies the southern half of the San Joaquin Valley, a prime agricultural region. The possibility of environmental damage has caused some farmers in Kern County to press for close regulation of hydraulic fracturing.[26]

Opponents say that hydraulic fracturing poses risks in the seismically active region.[27]

The California legislature passed a bill regulating fracking in September 2013. Some environmentalists criticised the bill as being too lax.[28] Some environmentalists promised not to rest until fracking is banned completely. Oil industry representatives criticized the bill as too restrictive. The measure was supported by state Sen. Fran Pavley, author of a fracking bill defeated the previous year.[29] The bill, which Governor Jerry Brown promised to sign, provided for disclosure of chemical used, pre-testing of nearby water wells, and a study on environmental and safety issues to be completed by January 2015.[30] Given the very limited success with fracking the Monterey to date, some find the controversy "much ado about little." [16]

In Santa Barbara County, Santa Maria Energy LLC (SME) has proposed a total of 136 wells in the Monterey formation that would use cyclic steam injection to produce tight oil. In 2013, the county planning commission declined its staff's recommendation to approve the project, calling for more study on concerns raised by environmentalists about greenhouse-gas emissions.[24] The County Board of Supervisors approved the proposed project on November 18, 2013 and SME was cited as a model operator and applicant during the proceedings.

Vertebrate paleofauna

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The Monterey Formation preserves a very diverse, primarily marine assemblage of fossil taxa. The most diverse assemblage with the most well-preserved, articulated specimens originates from the presumably Tortonian-aged diatomite deposits exposed in the former Celite Company/Johns Mansfield quarry in Lompoc. However, the age and even formation of these deposits is disputed, as some sources attribute them to the overlying Sisquoc Formation instead.[31]

Cartilaginous fish

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Based on the Paleobiology Database:[32]

Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Carcharhinus C. sp. Leisure World A requiem shark.
Carcharodon C. arnoldi Lompoc A relative of the great white shark.
C. hastalis
C. planus Leisure World
Cetorhinus C. sp. Leisure World A relative of the basking shark.
Galeocerdo G. aduncus Aliso Viejo A relative of the tiger shark.
Hexanchus H. sp. A sixgill shark.
Isurus I. sp. A mako shark.
Myliobatis sp. Laguna Niguel, Leisure World An eagle ray.
Otodus O. megalodon Altamira Shale, Laguna Niguel, Leisure World, El Toro Altamira Shale, Lower A megatooth shark, the megalodon.
Sphyrna S. sp. Laguna Niguel A hammerhead shark.
Strongyliscus S. robustus Lompoc Isolated dorsal spine A bullhead shark.

Bony fish

[edit]

Based on Fierstine et al (2012) and the Paleobiology Database.[32][33]

Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Acipenseridae indet. Mission Viejo Disarticulated partial skeleton. A sturgeon of uncertain affinities.
Achrestogrammus A. achrestus Lompoc Articulated partial skeleton A presumed greenling.
Araeosteus A. rothi Lompoc Articulated skeletons A relative of the prowfish.
Argyropelecus A. affinis Valmonte Diatomite Articulated skeletons, whereabouts uncertain The modern Pacific hatchetfish.
A. bullockii Lompoc Articulated skeletons A marine hatchetfish.
Bathylagus B. angelensis Bairdstown, El Modena, Lompoc Articulated skeletons A deep-sea smelt.
Bolbocara B. gyrinus Lompoc Articulated skeleton A grenadier.
Chauliodus C. eximius Lompoc Articulated skeletons A viperfish.
Cyclothone (=Rogenio) C. cf. solitudinis Bairdstown Articulated skeleton A bristlemouth.
C. sp. El Modena
Cynoscion C. eprepes Lompoc Partial articulated skeletons A weakfish.
Decapterus D. hopkinsi Articulated skeletons A mackerel scad.
Drimys D. defensor Lompoc Articulated skeleton A barracudina.
Eclipes E. cf. extensus Altamira Shale Articulated skeletons A cod.
E. manni Lompoc
E. veternus El Modena
Emmachaere E. rhomalea (=E. rhachites) Lompoc Articulated skeletons. A goosefish.
Eoscorpius E. primaevus Bairdstown Lost partial skeleton A presumed sablefish, but potentially a scombrid.
Etringus E. sp. Altamira Shale Scales A herring.
Eriquius E. plectrodes Lompoc Articulated skeleton. A surfperch.
Eritima E. evides Bairdstown Articulated skeleton. A cardinalfish.
Euleptorhamphus E. peronides Lompoc Articulated skeletons. A halfbeak. Attribution to Euleptorhamphus doubted.
Euzaphleges E. longurio Lompoc Articulated skeletons. A euzaphlegid scombroid.
Evesthes E. jordani Lompoc Articulated skeletons. A large-tooth flounder.
Forfex F. hypuralis Pine Canyon Articulated skeleton A forficid beloniform.[34]
Ganoessus G. clepsydra El Modena Articulated skeleton. A herring.
G. michaelis Buttle Articulated skeleton.
Ganolytes G. aratus Lompoc Articulated skeleton. A herring.
Gasterosteus G. aculeatus Lompoc Articulated skeletons. The modern three-spined stickleback.
Hexagrammidae indet. Lompoc Lost headless skeleton A greenling.
Hippoglossoides H. pristinus Lompoc Articulated skeleton A righteye flounder.
Hipposyngnathus H. imporcitor Lompoc Articulated skeletons A pipefish.
Ioscion I. morgani Lompoc Lost partial articulated skeleton An ioscionid percomorph, potential carangid affinities.
Istiophoridae indet. Predentary A marlin of uncertain affinities.
Lampanyctus (=Engraulites) L. remifer Lompoc Articulated skeletons. A lanternfish, formerly considered an anchovy.
Lampanyctinae indet. Lompoc Articulated skeleton A lanternfish.
Lampris L. zatima Lompoc, El Capitan Beach Articulated partial skeletons A relative of the opah.
Lirosceles L. elegans Lompoc Articulated skeleton A cottid sculpin.
Lompoquia L. culveri Lompoc Articulated skeleton A drumfish.
L. retropes
Makaira M. nigricans (sensu lato) Rostral fragment The modern blue marlin.
Megalops ?M. vigilax (=Starrias ischyrus) Lompoc Articulated partial skeleton A tarpon.
Molidae indet. An ocean sunfish.
Ocystias O. sagitta Lompoc Lost articulated skeleton A scombrid.
Ophiodon O. ozymandias Lompoc Partial articulated segment A relative of the lingcod.
Opisthonema O. palosverdensis Altamira Shale Articulated skeleton A thread herring.
Ozymandias O. gilberti Lompoc Vertebral segment, skull A scombrid.
Paralichthys P. antiquus Lompoc Head, body fragment A large-tooth flounder.
Plectrites P. classeni Lompoc Articulated skeletons A seabream.
Pleuronichthys P. veliger Lompoc Articulated skeleton A righteye flounder.
Protanthias P. fossilis Lompoc Articulated skeleton An anthias.
Pseudoseriola P. sanctaeineziae Lompoc Articulated skeleton A relative of the bluefish.
Quaesita Q. quisquilia El Modena Articulated skeletons A deep-sea smelt.
Quisque Q. gilberti El Modena Slab with numerous articulated skeletons. A herring.
Rythmias R. starri Lompoc Articulated skeletons A seabream.
Sarda S. stockii Lompoc Lost partial skeleton A bonito.
Scomber S. cf. japonicus (=Turio wilburi, T. culveri, Thyrsion velox, Pneumatophorus cf. grex) Lompoc Articulated skeletons A true mackerel, tentatively referred to the modern chub mackerel.
S. sanctaemonicae (=Auxides sanctaemonicae) Brown's Canyon Partial articulated skeleton A true mackerel.[35]
Scomberessus S. acutillus El Modena Articulated skeletons. A saury, possibly conspecific with Scomberesox edwardsi.
Scorpaena S. ensiger El Modena Articulated skeletons A scorpionfish.
Scorpaenidae indet. (=Lutjanus hagari) El Modena Articulated skeleton A scorpionfish, potentially in Stereolepis.
Sebastes S. apostates Lompoc Articulated skeletons A rockfish.
S. davidi
S. defunctus
S. ineziae
S. longirostris
S. porteousi
S. thermophilus
S. velox
Sebastinus S. sp. Lompoc Lost specimen A rockfish.
Seriola S. sanctaebarbarae Lompoc Articulated skeletons An amberjack.
Syngnathus S. avus Bairdstown, El Modena Articulated skeletons A pipefish.
Thyrsocles T. kriegeri Lompoc Articulated skeletons A euzaphlegid.
Thunnus T. starksi Lompoc Articulated skeleton, head fragment A tuna.
T. sp. Altamira Shale Articulated skeleton, fragments
Trossulus ?T. exoletus Lompoc Lost articulated skeletons A presumed euzaphlegid.
Tunita T. octavia El Modena Partial articulated skeleton A scombrid.
Xestias X. iratus Lompoc Skull, articulated skeleton A scombrid.
Xyne X. grex Lompoc Multiple slabs with numerous articulated skeletons A herring, known from huge fossilized mass mortality assemblages of spawning individuals.
Xyrinius X. barbarae Carpenteria Lost skeletons A herring that may be potentially conspecific with Xyne grex. It is uncertain whether X. houshi is from the Monterey Formation.
X. elmodenae El Modena
?X. houshi
Zanteclites Z. hubbsi Bairdstown Articulated skeleton A Neotropical silverside.
Zelosis Z. hadleyi El Modena Articulated skeleton A halfbeak.

Birds

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Based on the Paleobiology Database:[32]

Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Aethia A. rossmoori Lower An auklet.
Alcodes A. ulnulus Lower A Lucas auk.
Cerorhinca C. dubia Lompoc A relative of the rhinoceros auklet.
C. sp. Lower
Diomedea D. sp. A great albatross.
Fulmarus F. hammeri Lower A fulmar.
Gavia G. brodkorbi A loon.
Limosa L. vanrossemi Lompoc A godwit.
Morus M. lompocanus Lompoc, Monterey A gannet.
M. magnus
M. media (=Miosula)[36] Lompoc
M. willetti (=Sula willetti)[36] Lompoc
Microsula M. sp. Lower A sulid.
Miomancalla M. wetmorei A Lucas auk.
Oceanodroma O. sp. A storm petrel.
Osteodontornis O. orri Tepusquet Creek A pseudotooth bird.
Palaeoscinis P. turdirostris Tepusquet Creek Articulated skeleton A songbird.
Phoebastria P. anglica A North Pacific albatross.
Procellaridae indet. Tepusquet Creek A tubenose of uncertain affinities.
Praemancalla P. lagunensis Lower A Lucas auk.
Presbychen P. abavus Lower A goose.
Puffinus P. barnesi A shearwater.
P. calhouni Lower
P. diatomicus Lompoc
P. priscus Lower
Uria U. brodkorbi Lompoc Articulated skeleton. A murre.

Reptiles

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Based on the Paleobiology Database:[32]

Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Crocodylia indet. A crocodilian of uncertain affinities.
aff. Dermochelys D. sp. Lower A potential relative of the leatherback turtle.
Psephophorus P. sp. Lower A dermochelyid sea turtle.

Mammals

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Cetaceans

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Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Albicetus A. oxymycterus Santa Barbara A physeteroid toothed whale.
Albireonidae indet. Laguna Niguel An albireonid toothed whale.
Atocetus A. nasalis Laguna Niguel A kentriodontid toothed whale.
"Balaenoptera" "B." ryani Monterey Bay A baleen whale of uncertain affinities.
Delphinapterinae indet. Laguna Niguel A relative of the beluga whale.
Delphinavus D. newhalli Suey Ranch A delphinidan of uncertain affinities.
aff. Kampholophos K. sp. El Toro A kentriodontid toothed whale.
Kogiidae indet. Laguna Niguel A relative of the dwarf sperm whales.
Liolithax L. kernensis El Toro, Leisure World A kentriodontid toothed whale.
aff. Messapicetus M. sp. Laguna Niguel A beaked whale.
Mixocetus M. sp. Laguna Niguel A tranatocetid baleen whale.
Nannocetus N. sp. Laguna Niguel A cetothere.
Norrisanima N. miocaena Lompoc A stem-rorqual whale.
Piscolithax P. tedfordi Laguna Niguel A porpoise.
Pithanodelphis P. sp. Laguna Niguel, El Toro A kentriodontid toothed whale.
Salumiphocaena S. stocktoni Palos Verdes, El Toro Valmonte A porpoise.
Scaldicetus S. sp. El Toro A physeterid toothed whale.
Zarhinocetus Z. errabundus Aliso Viejo Lower An allodelphinid toothed whale.

Perissodactylans

[edit]
Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Pliohippus P. sp. El Toro An equine.

Desmostylians

[edit]
Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Desmostylus D. hesperus Monterey Bay, San Luis Obispo, Solvang, Palos Verdes, Leisure World A desmostylian.
Jamilcotatus J. boreios Santa Cruz Island A desmostylian, not officially named.
Neoparadoxia N. cecilialina Mission Viejo A paleoparadoxiid desmostylian.
Paleoparadoxia P. sp. Palos Verdes, Leisure World Altamira Shale A paleoparadoxiid desmostylian.

Carnivorans

[edit]
Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Allodesmus A. cf. sinanoensis Leisure World Lower A desmatophocid pinniped.
Atopotarus A. courseni Palos Verdes Altamira A desmatophocid pinniped.
Borophagus B. sp. El Toro A borophagine canid.
Imagotaria I. downsi Lompoc, Laguna Niguel, Leisure World An odobenid pinniped.
Monachinae indet. Laguna Niguel A monachine seal.
Pithanotaria P. starri Lompoc, Mission Viejo, Laguna Niguel An eared seal.
Pontolis P. barroni Aliso Viejo An odobenid pinniped.
P. cf. magnus Palos Verdes Valmonte

Sirenians

[edit]
Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Dioplotherium D. allisoni El Toro Lower A dugongid related to the dugong.
Dusisiren D. dewana Upper A dugongid related to Steller's sea cow.
D. jordani Lompoc, Moulton Ranch, Laguna Niguel, Leisure World
Metaxytherium M. sp. Leisure World A dugongid.

Paleoflora

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The Monterey Formation contains some of the few examples of fossilized non-calcareous algae in the world, which tend to be preserved in diatomite.[37]

Brown algae

[edit]
Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Paleocystophora P. subopposita A brown algae, family Cystoseiraceae.
Paleohalidrys P. californica A brown algae, family Cystoseiraceae.
P. occidentalis
P. superba
Julescraneia J. grandicornis A kelp, family Lessoniaceae.

Plants (green and red algae)

[edit]
Genus Species Location Member Material Notes Images
Caulerpites C. denticulata A green alga.
Chondrides C. flexilis A red alga.
Paleosiphonia P. oppositiclada A red alga.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ M.N. Bramlette (1946). The Monterey Formation of California and the Origin of its Siliceous Rocks. USGS Professional Paper 212.
  2. ^ Monterey Shale Gets New Look, AAPG Explorer, Nov 2010. Accessed 03/21/2014
  3. ^ The Monterey Formation of California: New Research Directions by Richard J. Behl, California State University, Long Beach, 2012
  4. ^ Sahagun, Louis (May 21, 2014) "U.S. officials cut estimate of recoverable Monterey Shale oil by 96%" Los Angeles Times
  5. ^ a b Drilling California: A Reality Check on the Monterey Shale J. David Hughes, Post Carbon Institute, 2013.
  6. ^ CCST Releases Report on Well Stimulation Technologies, August 28, 2014. "The 2011 EIA report suggested 15-billion barrels of recoverable oil in these source rocks but a subsequent 2014 correction by EIA reduced the estimate to 0.6 billion barrels. Recovering these resources would certainly require well stimulation. However, Berkeley Lab investigators found no reports of successful production from these deep source rocks and had questions about the EIA estimation methodology. The study's review of the two resource projections from deep source rocks in the Monterey Formation developed by EIA concluded that both these estimates are highly uncertain."
  7. ^ So Much Shale Oil—but So Hard to Get, Wall Street Journal, Updated Sept. 23, 2013
  8. ^ Burnett, William C.; Stanley R. Riggs, eds. (1990-05-25). Phosphate Deposits of the World: Volume 3, Neogene to Modern Phosphorites (Cambridge Earth Science Series). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33370-9.
  9. ^ Knott, Jeffrey R.; Sarna-Wojcicki, Andrei M.; Barron, John A.; Wan, Elmira; Heizler, Lynn; Martinez, Priscilla (2022-09-26), Aiello, Ivano W.; Barron, John A.; Ravelo, A. Christina (eds.), "Tephrochronology of the Miocene Monterey and Modelo Formations, California", Understanding the Monterey Formation and Similar Biosiliceous Units across Space and Time, Geological Society of America, pp. 187–214, doi:10.1130/2022.2556(08), ISBN 978-0-8137-2556-7, retrieved 2024-11-18
  10. ^ Josie Garthwaite, Monterey Shale shakes up California energy future, National Geographic, 27 May 2013.
  11. ^ US Energy Information administration, Review of emerging resources US shale gas and shale oil plays, July 2011.
  12. ^ US Energy Information Administration, Geology and technology drive estimates of technically recoverable resources, 20 July 2012.
  13. ^ The Monterey Shale and California’s Economic Future University of Southern California, USC Price School of Public Policy, (March 2013.
  14. ^ David Brown, The Monterey Shale, big deal, or big bust?, AAPG Explorer, Nov, 2012.
  15. ^ a b Monterey Shale Continues to Tempt and Tease, AAPG Explorer, February 2013
  16. ^ a b Monterey/Santos: Operators struggle with cracking code, World Oil, Nov. 2013 (Google title to bypass paywall)
  17. ^ Purd'homme, Alex (December 29, 2013) "'Fracking' the Monterey Shale -- boon or boondoggle?" Los Angeles Times
  18. ^ Magoon and others, [1], US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1713, Chapter 8.
  19. ^ S.A. Reid and J.L. McIntyre, Monterey Formation porcelanite reservoirs of the Elk Hills Field, Kern County, California, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 2001, v.85 n.1 p.169-189.
  20. ^ Pressure buildup analysis in a naturally fractured reservoir, 1983.
  21. ^ Mero, W.E., Thurston, S.P., and Kropschot, R.E., 1992, The Point Arguello Field, In Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1978–1988, AAPG Memoir 54, Halbouty, M.T., editor, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, ISBN 0891813330
  22. ^ Robert Sterling and others, North Shafter and Rose fields, Houston Geological Society Bulletin, 2003.
  23. ^ W.A. Minner and others, Rose field, Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2003.
  24. ^ a b Oil Firms Seek to Unlock Big California Field, Wall Street Journal, Sept. 22, 2013
  25. ^ Acidizing could rival fracking in Monterey Shale, San Francisco Chronicle, August 25, 2013
  26. ^ Norimitsu Onishi (June 1, 2013). "Fracking Tests Ties Between California 'Oil and Ag' Interests". The New York Times. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
  27. ^ Norimitsu Onishi (February 3, 2013). "Vast Oil Reserve May Now Be Within Reach, and Battle Heats Up". The New York Times. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
  28. ^ Mark Melincoe, Brown says he'll sign California bill regulating fracking, Bloomberg, 12 Sept, 2013.
  29. ^ Stephen Stock, California fracking law has huge holes, critics argue, NBC Bay Area, 13 Sept. 2013
  30. ^ California lawmakers approve fracking bill, NBC Bay Area, 12 Sept. 2013.
  31. ^ "PBDB Collection". paleobiodb.org. Retrieved 2024-12-16.
  32. ^ a b c d Czaplewski, John J. "PBDB Navigator". paleobiodb.org. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
  33. ^ California Academy of Sciences (1890). Occasional papers of the California Academy of Sciences. California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco : California Academy of Sciences.
  34. ^ "PBDB Collection". paleobiodb.org. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
  35. ^ "PBDB Taxon". paleobiodb.org. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
  36. ^ a b Ksepka, Daniel T.; Tennyson, Alan J. D. (2024-01-01). "Oldest fossil record of Sulidae from New Zealand". Journal of Ornithology. 165 (1): 277–280. doi:10.1007/s10336-023-02117-0. ISSN 2193-7206.
  37. ^ "Monterey Formation - Algae". ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-11-18.
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