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{{Short description|Doubtful attitude toward knowledge claims}}
{{Short description|Doubtful attitude toward knowledge claims}}
{{for multi|the philosophical view|Philosophical skepticism|denial of uncomfortable truths|Denialism|the band|Skepticism (band)|the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject|WikiProject]]|Wikipedia:WikiProject Skepticism}}
{{For multi|the philosophical view|Philosophical skepticism|denial of uncomfortable truths|Denialism|the band|Skepticism (band)}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
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{{Nihilism|origins}}
'''Skepticism''', also spelled '''scepticism''', is a questioning attitude or [[doubt]] toward [[knowledge]] claims that are seen as mere [[belief]] or [[dogma]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | author-link= Richard Popkin |first=R. H. |last=Popkin |title=The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Descartes (rev. ed. 1968); C. L. Stough, Greek Skepticism (1969); M. Burnyeat, ed., The Skeptical Tradition (1983); B. Stroud, The Significance of Philosophical Skepticism (1984) |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Skeptikoi |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com}}</ref><ref>"Philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted." [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm utm.edu]</ref> For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the person doubts that these claims are accurate. In such cases, skeptics normally recommend not disbelief but suspension of belief, i.e. maintaining a neutral attitude that neither affirms nor denies the claim. This attitude is often motivated by the impression that the available [[evidence]] is insufficient to support the claim. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in [[philosophy]], particularly [[epistemology]]. More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality ([[moral skepticism]]), [[atheism]] (skepticism about the [[existence of God]]), or the [[supernatural]].<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ozv0lftrUeEC|publisher = Oxford University Press, US|year = 2008|isbn = 978-0195183214|language = en|first = John|last = Greco|author-link=John Greco (philosopher)}}</ref> Some theorists distinguish "good" or moderate skepticism, which seeks strong evidence before accepting a position, from "bad" or radical skepticism, which wants to suspend judgment indefinitely.


'''Skepticism''', also spelled '''scepticism''' in [[British English]], is a questioning attitude or [[doubt]] toward [[knowledge]] claims that are seen as mere [[belief]] or [[dogma]].<ref>{{cite web|quote=Philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted.|url=http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113210019/http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm |archive-date=13 January 2009|title=Contemporary Skepticism|website=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|first=Duncan|last=Pritchard|year=2006 }}</ref> For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the person doubts that these claims are accurate. In such cases, skeptics normally recommend not disbelief but suspension of belief, i.e. maintaining a neutral attitude that neither affirms nor denies the claim. This attitude is often motivated by the impression that the available [[evidence]] is insufficient to support the claim. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in [[philosophy]], particularly [[epistemology]].
[[Philosophical skepticism]] is one important form of skepticism. It rejects knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of [[common sense]]. Radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that "knowledge or rational belief is possible and urge us to [[suspension of judgment|suspend judgment]] on many or all controversial matters." More moderate forms claim only that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about nonempirical matters, such as whether God exists, whether human beings have free will, or whether there is an afterlife. In ancient philosophy, skepticism was understood as a way of life associated with [[inner peace]].


More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality ([[moral skepticism]]), [[atheism]] (skepticism about the [[existence of God]]), or the [[supernatural]].<ref name="Greco2009">{{cite book |last1=Greco |first1=John |title=The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism |date=2 September 2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518321-4 |pages=3–7 |edition=1 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28229/chapter-abstract/213259164|chapter-url-access=subscription |language=en |chapter=Introduction|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195183214.003.0001}}</ref> Some theorists distinguish "good" or moderate skepticism, which seeks strong evidence before accepting a position, from "bad" or radical skepticism, which wants to suspend judgment indefinitely.<ref name="Raynaud1981">{{cite journal |last1=Raynaud |first1=Maurice |title=Skepticism in Medicine: Past and Present |journal=The Linacre Quarterly |date=1 May 1981 |volume=48 |issue=2 |url=https://epublications.marquette.edu/lnq/vol48/iss2/8/ |issn=0024-3639}}</ref><ref name="MeinerSkeptizismus">{{cite book |editor1-last=Sandkühler |editor1-first=Hans Jörg |title=Enzyklopädie Philosophie |date=2010 |publisher=Meiner |url=https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html|url-access=subscription |chapter=Skepsis/Skeptizismus}}</ref>
Skepticism has been responsible for many important developments in science and philosophy. It has also inspired several contemporary social movements. [[Religious skepticism]] advocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality, [[Divine providence|providence]], and [[revelation]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = Definition of SKEPTICISM|url = http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/skepticism|website = www.merriam-webster.com|access-date = 2016-02-05}}</ref> [[Scientific skepticism]] advocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to [[wikt:systematic|systematic]] investigation using the [[scientific method]], to discover [[empirical evidence]] for them.

[[Philosophical skepticism]] is one important form of skepticism. It rejects knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of [[common sense]]. Radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that "knowledge or rational belief is possible" and urge us to [[suspension of judgment|suspend judgment]] on many or all controversial matters. More moderate forms claim only that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about nonempirical matters, such as whether God exists, whether human beings have free will, or whether there is an afterlife. In ancient philosophy, skepticism was understood as a way of life associated with [[inner peace]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bett |first1=Richard Arnot Home |title=The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism |date=28 January 2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87476-2 |page=289 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5V8pQDsM5poC&pg=PA289 |language=en}}</ref>

Skepticism has been responsible for many important developments in science and philosophy. It has also inspired several contemporary social movements. [[Religious skepticism]] advocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality, [[Divine providence|providence]], and [[revelation]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = skepticism (noun)|url = https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/skepticism|website = Merriam-Webster|access-date = 2016-02-05}}</ref> [[Scientific skepticism]] advocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to [[wikt:systematic|systematic]] investigation using the [[scientific method]], to discover [[empirical evidence]] for them.


== Definition and semantic field ==
== Definition and semantic field ==
''Skepticism'', also spelled ''scepticism'', (from the Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to search, to think about or look for) refers to a doubtful attitude toward [[knowledge]] claims.<ref name="Popkin"/><ref name="Greco2009">{{cite book |last1=Greco |first1=John |title=The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism |date=2 September 2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518321-4 |pages=3–7 |edition=1 |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28229/chapter-abstract/213259164 |language=en |chapter=Introduction}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Skepticism |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=skepticism&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 |website=www.ahdictionary.com |publisher=HarperCollins |access-date=31 August 2022}}</ref> So if a person is skeptical of their government's claims about an ongoing war then the person has doubts that these claims are true. Or being skeptical that one's favorite hockey team will win the championship means that one is uncertain about the strength of their performance.<ref name="Greco2009"/> Skepticism about a claim implies that one does not [[Belief|believe]] this claim to be true. But it does not automatically follow that one should believe that the claim is false either. Instead, skeptics usually recommend a neutral attitude: beliefs about this matter should be suspended. In this regard, skepticism about a claim can be defined as the thesis that "the only justified attitude with respect to [this claim] is suspension of judgment".<ref name="Comesaña2001"/> It is often motivated by the impression that one cannot be certain about it. This is especially relevant when there is significant expert disagreement.<ref name="Blackburn2008">{{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199541430.001.0001/acref-9780199541430-e-2771 |language=en |chapter=scepticism}}</ref> Skepticism is usually restricted to a claim or a field of inquiry. So [[religious]] and [[moral]] skeptics have a doubtful attitude about religious and moral doctrines. But some forms of philosophical skepticism, are wider in that they reject any form of knowledge.<ref name="Blackburn2008"/>
''Skepticism'', also spelled ''scepticism'' (from the Greek {{lang|grc|σκέπτομαι}} {{transliteration|grc|skeptomai}}, to search, to think about or look for), refers to a doubting attitude toward [[knowledge]] claims.{{r|Greco2009}}<ref name="Popkin">{{cite web |last1=Popkin |first1=Richard H. |title=skepticism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/skepticism |website=Britannica |access-date=23 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> So if a person is skeptical of their government's claims about an ongoing war then the person has doubts that these claims are true. Or being skeptical that one's favorite hockey team will win the championship means that one is uncertain about the strength of their performance.<ref name="Greco2009"/> Skepticism about a claim implies that one does not [[Belief|believe]] the claim to be true. But it does not automatically follow that one should believe that the claim is false either. Instead, skeptics usually recommend a neutral attitude: beliefs about this matter should be suspended. In this regard, skepticism about a claim can be defined as the thesis that "the only justified attitude with respect to [this claim] is suspension of judgment".<ref name="Comesaña2001">{{cite web |last1=Comesaña |first1=Juan |last2=Klein |first2=Peter |title=Skepticism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=24 August 2022 |date=2019}}</ref> It is often motivated by the impression that one cannot be certain about it. This is especially relevant when there is significant expert disagreement.<ref name="Blackburn2008">{{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199541430.001.0001/acref-9780199541430-e-2771|url-access=subscription |language=en |chapter=scepticism}}</ref> Skepticism is usually restricted to a claim or a field of inquiry. So religious and [[Moral skepticism|moral skeptics]] have a doubtful attitude about religious and moral doctrines. But some forms of philosophical skepticism, are wider in that they reject any form of knowledge.<ref name="Blackburn2008"/>


Some definitions, often inspired by [[ancient philosophy]], see skepticism not just as an attitude but as a way of life. This is based on the idea that maintaining the skeptical attitude of doubt toward most concerns in life is somehow superior compared to living in dogmatic certainty, for example, because such a skeptic person has more [[happiness]] and [[Inner peace|peace of mind]] or because it is morally better.<ref name="Greco2009"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Vogt |first1=Katja |title=Ancient Skepticism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-ancient/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 August 2022 |date=2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Reed |first1=Baron |title=Skepticism as a Way of Life |date=11 December 2018 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-39353-0 |url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004393530/BP000005.xml |language=en}}</ref> In [[contemporary philosophy]], on the other hand, skepticism is often understood neither as an attitude nor as a way of life but as a thesis: the thesis that knowledge does not exist.<ref name="Greco2009"/>
Some definitions, often inspired by [[ancient philosophy]], see skepticism not just as an attitude but as a way of life. This is based on the idea that maintaining the skeptical attitude of doubt toward most concerns in life is superior to living in dogmatic certainty, for example because such a skeptic has more [[happiness]] and [[Inner peace|peace of mind]] or because it is morally better.<ref name="Greco2009"/><ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web |last1=Vogt |first1=Katja |title=Ancient Skepticism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-ancient/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 August 2022 |date=2021}}
|2={{cite book |last1=Reed |first1=Baron |title=The Mystery of Skepticism|editor-first1=Kevin|editor-last1=McCain|editor-first2=Ted|editor-last2=Poston|chapter=Skepticism as a Way of Life |year= 2018 |publisher=Brill|series=Brill Studies in Skepticism|volume=2 |pages=63–80 |isbn=978-90-04-39353-0 |chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004393530/BP000005.xml|chapter-url-access=subscription |language=en|doi=10.1163/9789004393530_006|s2cid=150356547 }} }}</ref> In [[contemporary philosophy]], on the other hand, skepticism is often understood neither as an attitude nor as a way of life but as a thesis: the thesis that knowledge does not exist.<ref name="Greco2009"/>


Skepticism is related to various terms. It is sometimes equated with [[agnosticism]] and [[relativism]].<ref name="NewtonFlew2021">{{cite web |first1=Antony Garrard |last1=Newton Flew |title=agnosticism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/agnosticism |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=26 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Sankey2012">{{cite journal |last1=Sankey |first1=Howard |title=Scepticism, relativism and the argument from the criterion |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A |date=1 March 2012 |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=182–190 |doi=10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.12.026 |bibcode=2012SHPSA..43..182S |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0039368111001373 |language=en |issn=0039-3681}}</ref><ref name="MeinerSkeptizismus">{{cite book |editor1-last=Sandkühler |editor1-first=Hans Jörg |title=Enzyklopädie Philosophie |date=2010 |publisher=Meiner |url=https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html |chapter=Skepsis/Skeptizismus}}</ref> However, there are slight differences in meaning. Agnosticism is often understood more narrowly as skepticism about religious questions, in particular, about the [[Christian doctrine]].<ref name="NewtonFlew2021"/> Relativism does not deny the existence of knowledge or truth but holds that they are relative to a person and differ from person to person, for example, because they follow different cognitive norms.<ref name="Baghramian2020">{{cite web |last1=Baghramian |first1=Maria |last2=Carter |first2=J. Adam |title=Relativism: 4.4 Epistemic relativism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/#EpiRel |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=26 August 2022 |date=2022}}</ref> The opposite of skepticism is [[dogmatism]], which implies an attitude of certainty in the form of an unquestioning belief.<ref name="Laursen2018">{{cite book |last1=John |first1=Laursen |title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/skepticism |chapter=Skepticism}}</ref> A similar contrast is often drawn in relation to blind faith and credulity.<ref name="Raynaud1981">{{cite journal |last1=Raynaud |first1=Maurice |title=Skepticism in Medicine: Past and Present |journal=The Linacre Quarterly |date=1 May 1981 |volume=48 |issue=2 |url=https://epublications.marquette.edu/lnq/vol48/iss2/8/ |issn=0024-3639}}</ref>
Skepticism is related to various terms. It is sometimes equated with [[agnosticism]] and [[relativism]].<ref name="MeinerSkeptizismus" /><ref name="NewtonFlew2021">{{cite web |first1=Antony Garrard |last1=Newton Flew |title=agnosticism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/agnosticism |website=Britannica |access-date=26 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Sankey2012">{{cite journal |last1=Sankey |first1=Howard |title=Scepticism, relativism and the argument from the criterion |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A |date=1 March 2012 |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=182–190 |doi=10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.12.026 |bibcode=2012SHPSA..43..182S |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0039368111001373|url-access=subscription |language=en |issn=0039-3681}}</ref> However, there are slight differences in meaning. Agnosticism is often understood more narrowly as skepticism about religious questions, in particular, about the [[Christian doctrine]].<ref name="NewtonFlew2021"/> Relativism does not deny the existence of knowledge or truth but holds that they are relative to a person and differ from person to person, for example, because they follow different cognitive norms.<ref name="Baghramian2020">{{cite web |last1=Baghramian |first1=Maria |last2=Carter |first2=J. Adam |title=Relativism: 4.4 Epistemic relativism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/#EpiRel |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=26 August 2022 |date=2022}}</ref> The opposite of skepticism is [[dogmatism]], which implies an attitude of certainty in the form of an unquestioning belief.<ref name="Laursen2018">{{cite book |first1=John Christian |last1=Laursen |title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/skepticism |chapter=Skepticism|year=2018}}</ref> A similar contrast is often drawn in relation to blind faith and credulity.<ref name="Raynaud1981" />


== Types ==
== Types ==
Various types of skepticism have been discussed in the academic literature. Skepticism is usually restricted to knowledge claims on one particular subject, which is why its different forms can be distinguished based on the subject.<ref name="Popkin"/><ref name="Greco2009"/><ref name="Blackburn2008"/> For example, [[Religious skepticism|religious skeptics]] distrust [[religious doctrines]] and [[Moral skepticism|moral skeptics]] raise doubts about accepting various moral requirements and customs. Skepticism can also be applied to knowledge in general. However, this attitude is usually only found in some forms of philosophical skepticism.<ref name="Popkin"/><ref name="Greco2009"/> A closely related classification distinguishes based on the [[Sources of knowledge|source of knowledge]], such as skepticism about [[perception]], [[memory]], or [[intuition]].<ref name="Cohen1996">{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Stewart |editor1-last=Craig |editor1-first=Edward |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |chapter=}}</ref> A further distinction is based on the degree of the skeptical attitude. The strongest forms assert that there is no knowledge at all or that it is impossible. Weaker forms merely state that one can never be absolutely certain.<ref name="Greco2009"/>
Various types of skepticism have been discussed in the academic literature. Skepticism is usually restricted to knowledge claims on one particular subject, which is why its different forms can be distinguished based on the subject.{{r|Greco2009|Popkin|Blackburn2008}} For example, [[Religious skepticism|religious skeptics]] distrust [[religious doctrines]] and [[Moral skepticism|moral skeptics]] raise doubts about accepting various moral requirements and customs. Skepticism can also be applied to knowledge in general. However, this attitude is usually only found in some forms of philosophical skepticism.{{r|Greco2009|Popkin}} A closely related classification distinguishes based on the [[Sources of knowledge|source of knowledge]], such as skepticism about [[perception]], [[memory]], or [[intuition]].<ref name="Cohen1996">{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Stewart |editor1-last=Craig |editor1-first=Edward |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |chapter=}}</ref> A further distinction is based on the degree of the skeptical attitude. The strongest forms assert that there is no knowledge at all or that knowledge is impossible. Weaker forms merely state that one can never be absolutely certain.<ref name="Greco2009"/>


Some theorists distinguish between a good or healthy form of moderate skepticism in contrast to a bad or unhealthy form of radical skepticism. On this view, the "good" skeptic is a critically-minded person who seeks strong evidence before accepting a position. The "bad" skeptic, on the other hand, wants to "suspend judgment indefinitely ... even in the face of demonstrable truth".<ref name="Raynaud1981"/><ref name="MeinerSkeptizismus"/> Another categorization focuses on the motivation for the skeptical attitude. Some skeptics have [[ideological]] motives: they want to replace inferior beliefs with better ones. Others have a more practical outlook in that they see problematic beliefs as the cause of harmful customs they wish to stop. Some skeptics have very particular goals in mind, such as bringing down a certain institution associated with the spread of claims they reject.<ref name="Popkin"/><ref name="Greco2009"/>
Some theorists distinguish between a good or healthy form of moderate skepticism in contrast to a bad or unhealthy form of radical skepticism. On this view, the "good" skeptic is a critically-minded person who seeks strong evidence before accepting a position. The "bad" skeptic, on the other hand, wants to "suspend judgment indefinitely... even in the face of demonstrable truth".{{r|Raynaud1981|MeinerSkeptizismus}} Another categorization focuses on the motivation for the skeptical attitude. Some skeptics have [[ideological]] motives: they want to replace inferior beliefs with better ones. Others have a more practical outlook in that they see problematic beliefs as the cause of harmful customs they wish to stop. Some skeptics have very particular goals in mind, such as bringing down a certain institution associated with the spread of claims they reject.{{r|Greco2009|Popkin}}


[[Philosophical skepticism]] is a prominent form of skepticism and can be contrasted with non-philosophical or ordinary skepticism. Ordinary skepticism involves a doubting attitude toward knowledge claims that are rejected by many.<ref name="Comesaña2001">{{cite web |last1=Comesaña |first1=Juan |last2=Klein |first2=Peter |title=Skepticism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=24 August 2022 |date=2019}}</ref> Almost everyone shows some form of ordinary skepticism, for example, by doubting the knowledge claims made by [[flat earthers]] or [[astrologer]]s.<ref name="Popkin">{{cite web |last1=Popkin |first1=Richard H. |title=skepticism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/skepticism |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=23 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Greco2009"/> Philosophical skepticism, on the other hand, is a much more radical and rare position. It includes the rejection of knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of [[common sense]]. Some forms of it even deny that one knows that "I have two hands" or that "the sun will come out tomorrow".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olsson |first1=Erik J. |title=Not Giving the Skeptic a Hearing: "Pragmatism and Radical Doubt" |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=2005 |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=98–126 |doi=10.1111/j.1933-1592.2005.tb00507.x |jstor=40040781 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40040781 |issn=0031-8205}}</ref><ref name="Comesaña2001"/> It is taken seriously in philosophy nonetheless since it has proven very hard to conclusively refute philosophical skepticism.<ref name="Greco2009"/><ref name="Comesaña2001">{{cite web |last1=Comesaña |first1=Juan |last2=Klein |first2=Peter |title=Skepticism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=24 August 2022 |date=2019}}</ref>
[[Philosophical skepticism]] is a prominent form of skepticism and can be contrasted with non-philosophical or ordinary skepticism. Ordinary skepticism involves a doubting attitude toward knowledge claims that are rejected by many.<ref name="Comesaña2001"/> Almost everyone shows some form of ordinary skepticism, for example, by doubting the knowledge claims made by [[flat earthers]] or [[astrologer]]s.{{r|Greco2009|Popkin}} Philosophical skepticism, on the other hand, is a much more radical and rare position. It includes the rejection of knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of [[common sense]]. Some forms of it even deny that one knows that "I have two hands" or that "the sun will come out tomorrow".<ref name="Comesaña2001"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olsson |first1=Erik J. |title=Not Giving the Skeptic a Hearing: 'Pragmatism and Radical Doubt' |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=2005 |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=98–126 |doi=10.1111/j.1933-1592.2005.tb00507.x |jstor=40040781 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40040781|url-access=subscription |issn=0031-8205}}</ref> It is taken seriously in philosophy nonetheless because it has proven very hard to conclusively refute philosophical skepticism.{{r|Greco2009|Comesaña2001}}


==In various fields==
==In various fields==
Skepticism has been responsible for important developments in various fields, such as [[science]], [[medicine]], and [[philosophy]]. In science, the skeptical attitude toward traditional opinions was a key factor in the development of the [[scientific method]]. It emphasizes the need to scrutinize knowledge claims by testing them through [[experimentation]] and precise [[measurement]].<ref name="Lagerlund2020">{{cite book |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |title=Skepticism in Philosophy: A Comprehensive, Historical Introduction |date=29 April 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-36995-4 |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UX3gDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Laursen2018"/> In the field of medicine, skepticism has helped the establishment of more advanced forms of treatment by putting into doubt traditional forms based on intuitive appeal rather than [[empirical evidence]].<ref name="Raynaud1981"/><ref name="Laursen2018"/> In the history of philosophy, skepticism has often played a productive role not just for skeptics but also for non-skeptical philosophers.<ref name="Popkin"/><ref name="Greco2009"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Chris |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods |date=2015 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-34455-7 |pages=1–30 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction and Historical Overview|doi=10.1057/9781137344557_1 }}</ref> This is due to its critical attitude that continues to challenge the [[epistemological]] foundations of a great variety of philosophical theories. This challenge can help to keep speculation in check and may provoke creative responses transforming the theory in question in order to overcome the problems posed by skepticism.<ref name="Popkin"/><ref name="Greco2009"/> According to Richard H. Popkin, "the history of philosophy can be seen, in part, as a struggle with skepticism". In this regard, it has led many contemporary philosophers to abandon the quest for absolutely certain or indubitable first principles of philosophy, which was still prevalent in many earlier periods.<ref name="Popkin"/> Skepticism has been an important topic throughout the history of philosophy and is still a widely discussed subject today.<ref name="Greco2009"/>
Skepticism has been responsible for important developments in various fields, such as [[science]], [[medicine]], and [[philosophy]]. In science, the skeptical attitude toward traditional opinions was a key factor in the development of the [[scientific method]]. It emphasizes the need to scrutinize knowledge claims by testing them through [[experimentation]] and precise [[measurement]].<ref name="Laursen2018"/><ref name="Lagerlund2020">{{cite book |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |chapter=Non-Philosophical Skepticism|title=Skepticism in Philosophy: A Comprehensive, Historical Introduction |date=29 April 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-36995-4 |page=197 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UX3gDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT197|chapter-url-access=subscription |language=en}}</ref> In the field of medicine, skepticism has helped establish more advanced forms of treatment by putting into doubt traditional forms that were based on intuitive appeal rather than [[empirical evidence]].<ref name="Raynaud1981"/><ref name="Laursen2018"/> In the history of philosophy, skepticism has often played a productive role not just for skeptics but also for non-skeptical philosophers.{{r|Greco2009|Popkin}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Chris |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods |date=2015 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location= U.K. |isbn=978-1-137-34455-7 |pages=1–30 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction and Historical Overview|chapter-url-access=subscription|doi=10.1057/9781137344557_1 }}</ref> This is due to its critical attitude that challenges the [[epistemological]] foundations of philosophical theories. This can help to keep speculation in check and may provoke creative responses, transforming the theory in question in order to overcome the problems posed by skepticism.{{r|Greco2009|Popkin}} According to Richard H. Popkin, "the history of philosophy can be seen, in part, as a struggle with skepticism". This struggle has led many contemporary philosophers to abandon the quest for absolutely certain or indubitable first principles of philosophy, which was still prevalent in many earlier periods.<ref name="Popkin"/> Skepticism has been an important topic throughout the history of philosophy and is still widely discussed today.<ref name="Greco2009"/>


===Philosophy===
===Philosophy===
{{Pyrrhonism sidebar}}{{Main|Philosophical skepticism}}
{{Pyrrhonism sidebar}}{{Main|Philosophical skepticism}}
As a philosophical school or movement, skepticism arose both in ancient Greece and India. In India the [[Ajñana]] school of philosophy espoused skepticism. It was a major early rival of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], and a possibly major influence on Buddhism. Two of the foremost disciples of the [[Buddha]], [[Sariputta]] and [[Maudgalyayana|Moggallāna]], were initially the students of the Ajñana philosopher [[Sanjaya Belatthiputta]], and a strong element of skepticism is found in [[Early Buddhism]], most particularly in the [[Atthakavagga and Parayanavagga|Aṭṭhakavagga]] sutra, but it is inconclusive the total effect these philosophies had on each other. Since skepticism is a philosophical attitude and a style of philosophizing rather than a position, the Ajñanins may have influenced other skeptical thinkers of India such as [[Nagarjuna]], [[Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa]], and [[Shriharsha]].{{sfn|Matilal|2004|pp=52–75}}
As a philosophical school or movement, skepticism arose both in ancient Greece and India. In India the [[Ajñana]] school of philosophy espoused skepticism. It was a major early rival of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], and possibly a major influence on Buddhism. Two of the foremost disciples of the [[Buddha]], [[Sariputta]] and [[Maudgalyayana|Moggallāna]], were initially students of the Ajñana philosopher [[Sanjaya Belatthiputta]]. A strong element of skepticism is found in [[Early Buddhist schools|Early Buddhism]], most particularly in the [[Atthakavagga and Parayanavagga|Aṭṭhakavagga]] sutra. However the total effect these philosophies had on each other is difficult to discern. Since skepticism is a philosophical attitude and a style of philosophizing rather than a position, the Ajñanins may have influenced other skeptical thinkers of India such as [[Nagarjuna]], [[Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa]], and [[Shriharsha]].{{sfn|Matilal|2004|pp=52–75}}{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}


In Greece philosophers as early as [[Xenophanes]] (c. 570 c. 475 BCE) expressed skeptical views, as did [[Democritus]]<ref>[[#DL|Diogenes Laërtius]] (tr. [[Robert Drew Hicks|Hicks]], 1925), [[s:Lives of the Eminent Philosophers/Book IX#cite ref-102|ix.72]]. See also [[#Fr|Bakalis]] (2005, p. 86)</ref>
In Greece, philosophers as early as [[Xenophanes]] ({{BCE|{{circa|570}}{{circa|475}}}}) expressed skeptical views, as did [[Democritus]]<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|author=[[Diogenes Laërtius]]|title=Lives of the Eminent Philosophers|at=[https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/diogenes-laertius/the-lives-and-opinions-of-eminent-philosophers/c-d-yonge/text/book-9#part-9-7 Book IX]}}
and a number of [[Sophists]]. [[Gorgias]], for example, reputedly argued that nothing exists, that even if there were something we could not know it, and that even if we could know it we could not communicate it.<ref>W. T. Jones, ''A History of Western Philosophy''. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1952, p. 60 n. 45.</ref> The [[Heraclitus|Heraclitean]] philosopher [[Cratylus]] refused to discuss anything and would merely wriggle his finger, claiming that communication is impossible since meanings are constantly changing.<ref>Richard H. Popkin, "Skepticism", in Paul Edwards, ed., ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', vol. 7. New York: Macmillan, 1967, p. 449.</ref> [[Socrates]] also had skeptical tendencies, claiming to know nothing worthwhile.<ref>Allan Hazlett, ''A Critical Introduction to Skepticism''. London: Bloomsbury, 2014, p. 4-5.</ref>
|2= [[#Fr|Bakalis]] (2005, p. 86){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} }}</ref>
and a number of [[Sophists]]. [[Gorgias]], for example, reputedly argued that nothing exists, that even if there were something we could not know it, and that even if we could know it we could not communicate it.<ref>{{cite book|first=W. T.|last=Jones|title=A History of Western Philosophy|location=New York|publisher=Harcourt, Brace|year=1952|at=p. 60 n. 45}}</ref> The [[Heraclitus|Heraclitean]] philosopher [[Cratylus]] refused to discuss anything and would merely wriggle his finger, claiming that communication is impossible since meanings are constantly changing.<ref name=PopkinSkepticism>{{cite book|first=Richard H.|last=Popkin|chapter=Skepticism|editor-first=Paul|editor-last=Edwards|title=The Encyclopedia of Philosophy|volume=7|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan|year=1967}}</ref>{{rp|449}} [[Socrates]] also had skeptical tendencies, claiming to know nothing worthwhile.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hazlett|first=Allan|author-link=Allan Hazlett|title=[[A Critical Introduction to Skepticism]]|location=London|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2014|pages=4–5}}</ref>


[[File:Philosopher,_marble_head,_Roman_copy,_AM_Corfu,_Krfm22.jpg|thumb|[[Pyrrho of Elis]] was the founder of the school of skepticism known as [[Pyrrhonism]].]]
[[File:Philosopher,_marble_head,_Roman_copy,_AM_Corfu,_Krfm22.jpg|thumb|[[Pyrrho of Elis]] was the founder of the school of skepticism known as [[Pyrrhonism]].]]
There were two major schools of skepticism in the ancient Greek and Roman world. The first was [[Pyrrhonism]], founded by [[Pyrrho of Elis]] (c. 360–270 BCE). The second was [[Academic Skepticism]], so-called because its two leading defenders, [[Arcesilaus]] (c. 315–240 BCE) who initiated the philosophy, and [[Carneades]] (c. 217–128 BCE), the philosophy's most famous proponent, were heads of Plato's [[Academy]]. Pyrrhonism's aims are psychological. It urges suspension of judgment (''[[epoche]]'') to achieve mental tranquility (''[[ataraxia]]''). The Academic Skeptics denied that knowledge is possible (''[[acatalepsy]]''). The Academic Skeptics claimed that some beliefs are more reasonable or probable than others, whereas Pyrrhonian skeptics argue that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any disputed view.<ref>Popkin, "Skepticism", p. 450.</ref> Nearly all the writings of the ancient skeptics are now lost. Most of what we know about ancient skepticism is from [[Sextus Empiricus]], a Pyrrhonian skeptic who lived in the second or third century CE. His works contain a lucid summary of stock skeptical arguments.
There were two major schools of skepticism in the ancient Greek and Roman world. The first was [[Pyrrhonism]], founded by [[Pyrrho of Elis]] ({{circa|{{BCE|360–270}}}}). The second was [[Academic Skepticism]], so-called because its two leading defenders, [[Arcesilaus]] ({{circa|{{BCE|315–240}}}}) who initiated the philosophy, and [[Carneades]] ({{circa|{{BCE|217–128}}}}), the philosophy's most famous proponent, were heads of Plato's [[Academy]]. Pyrrhonism's aims are psychological. It urges suspension of judgment ({{transliteration|grc|[[epoche]]}}) to achieve mental tranquility ({{transliteration|grc|[[ataraxia]]}}). The Academic Skeptics denied that knowledge is possible ({{transliteration|grc|[[acatalepsy]]}}). The Academic Skeptics claimed that some beliefs are more reasonable or probable than others, whereas Pyrrhonian skeptics argue that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any disputed view.{{r|PopkinSkepticism|page=450}} Nearly all the writings of the ancient skeptics are now lost. Most of what we know about ancient skepticism is from [[Sextus Empiricus]], a Pyrrhonian skeptic who lived in {{CE|the second or third century}}. His works contain a lucid summary of stock skeptical arguments.


Ancient skepticism faded out during the late Roman Empire, particularly after [[Augustine]] (354–430 CE) attacked the skeptics in his work ''Against the Academics'' (386 CE). There was little knowledge of, or interest in, ancient skepticism in Christian Europe during the Middle Ages. Interest revived during the Renaissance and Reformation, particularly after the complete writings of Sextus Empiricus were translated into Latin in 1569. A number of Catholic writers, including [[Francisco Sanches]] (c. 1550–1623), [[Michel de Montaigne]] (1533–1592), [[Pierre Gassendi]] (1592–1655), and [[Marin Mersenne]] (1588–1648) deployed ancient skeptical arguments to defend moderate forms of skepticism and to argue that faith, rather than reason, must be the primary guide to truth. Similar arguments were offered later (perhaps ironically) by the Protestant thinker [[Pierre Bayle]] in his influential Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697–1702).<ref>Richard H. Popkin, ''The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza'', rev. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979, chaps 1 and 2.</ref>
Ancient skepticism faded out during the late Roman Empire, particularly after [[Augustine]] ({{CE|354–430}}) attacked the skeptics in his work ''Against the Academics'' ({{CE|386}}). There was little knowledge of, or interest in, ancient skepticism in Christian Europe during the Middle Ages. Interest revived during the Renaissance and Reformation, particularly after the complete writings of Sextus Empiricus were translated into Latin in 1569 and after [[Martin Luther]]'s skepticism of holy orders.<ref name="Daughtrity 2017 p. 358">{{cite book | last=Daughtrity | first=Dyron B. | title=Martin Luther: A Biography for the People | publisher=Abilene Christian University Press | year=2017 | isbn=978-0-89112-468-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TEGHDwAAQBAJ | url-access=subscription | access-date=2023-02-11 | page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TEGHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT358 358]}}</ref> A number of Catholic writers, including [[Francisco Sanches]] ({{circa|1550–1623}}), [[Michel de Montaigne]] (1533–1592), [[Pierre Gassendi]] (1592–1655), and [[Marin Mersenne]] (1588–1648) deployed ancient skeptical arguments to defend moderate forms of skepticism and to argue that faith, rather than reason, must be the primary guide to truth. Similar arguments were offered later (perhaps ironically) by the Protestant thinker [[Pierre Bayle]] in his influential Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697–1702).<ref name=PopkinHistory>{{cite book|first=Richard H.|last=Popkin|title=The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza|edition=revised|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|year=1979}}</ref>{{rp|chaps. 1 & 2}}


The growing popularity of skeptical views created an intellectual crisis in seventeenth-century Europe. One major response was offered by the French philosopher and mathematician [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650). In his classic work, ''Meditations of First Philosophy'' (1641), Descartes sought to refute skepticism, but only after he had formulated the case for skepticism as powerfully as possible. Descartes argued that no matter what radical skeptical possibilities we imagine there are certain truths (e.g., that thinking is occurring, or that I exist) that are absolutely certain. Thus, the ancient skeptics were wrong to claim that knowledge is impossible. Descartes also attempted to refute skeptical doubts about the reliability of our senses, our memory, and other cognitive faculties. To do this, Descartes tried to prove that God exists and that God would not allow us to be systematically deceived about the nature of reality. Many contemporary philosophers question whether this second stage of Descartes's critique of skepticism is successful.<ref>See, e.g., Popkin, ''The History of Skepticism'', p. 210.</ref>
The growing popularity of skeptical views created an intellectual crisis in seventeenth-century Europe. An influential response was offered by the French philosopher and mathematician [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650). In his classic work, ''Meditations of First Philosophy'' (1641), Descartes sought to refute skepticism, but only after he had formulated the case for skepticism as powerfully as possible. Descartes argued that no matter what radical skeptical possibilities we imagine there are certain truths (e.g., that thinking is occurring, or that I exist) that are absolutely certain. Thus, the ancient skeptics were wrong to claim that knowledge is impossible. Descartes also attempted to refute skeptical doubts about the reliability of our senses, our memory, and other cognitive faculties. To do this, Descartes tried to prove that God exists and that God would not allow us to be systematically deceived about the nature of reality. Many contemporary philosophers question whether this second stage of Descartes's critique of skepticism is successful.{{r|PopkinHistory|page=210}}


In the eighteenth century a new case for skepticism was offered by the Scottish philosopher [[David Hume]] (1711–1776). Hume was an empiricist, claiming that all genuine ideas can be traced back to original impressions of sensation or introspective consciousness. Hume argued that on empiricist grounds there are no sound reasons for belief in God, an enduring self or soul, an external world, causal necessity, objective morality, or inductive reasoning. In fact, he argued that "Philosophy would render us entirely Pyrrhonian, were not Nature too strong for it."<ref>Quoted in Popkin, "Skepticism", p. 456.</ref> As Hume saw it, the real basis of human belief is not reason, but custom or habit. We are hard-wired by nature to trust, say, our memories or inductive reasoning, and no skeptical arguments, however powerful, can dislodge those beliefs. In this way, Hume embraced what he called a "mitigated" skepticism, while rejecting an "excessive" Pyrrhonian skepticism that he saw as both impractical and psychologically impossible.
In the eighteenth century a new case for skepticism was offered by the Scottish philosopher [[David Hume]] (1711–1776). Hume was an empiricist, claiming that all genuine ideas can be traced back to original impressions of sensation or introspective consciousness. Hume argued that on empiricist grounds there are no sound reasons for belief in God, an enduring self or soul, an external world, causal necessity, objective morality, or inductive reasoning. In fact, he argued that "Philosophy would render us entirely Pyrrhonian, were not Nature too strong for it."{{r|PopkinSkepticism|page=456}} As Hume saw it, the real basis of human belief is not reason, but custom or habit. We are hard-wired by nature to trust, say, our memories or inductive reasoning, and no skeptical arguments, however powerful, can dislodge those beliefs. In this way, Hume embraced what he called a "mitigated" skepticism, while rejecting an "excessive" Pyrrhonian skepticism that he saw as both impractical and psychologically impossible.


Hume's skepticism provoked a number of important responses. Hume's Scottish contemporary, [[Thomas Reid]] (1710–1796), challenged Hume's strict empiricism and argued that it is rational to accept "common-sense" beliefs such as the basic reliability of our senses, our reason, our memories, and inductive reasoning, even though none of these things can be proved. In Reid's view, such common-sense beliefs are foundational and require no proof in order to be rationally justified.<ref>Popkin, "Skepticism", p. 456.</ref> Not long after Hume's death, the great German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804) argued that human moral awareness makes no sense unless we reject Hume's skeptical conclusions about the existence of God, the soul, free will, and an afterlife. According to Kant, while Hume was right to claim that we cannot strictly ''know'' any of these things, our moral experience entitles us to believe in them.<ref>Popkin, "Skepticism", p. 457.</ref>
Hume's skepticism provoked a number of important responses. Hume's Scottish contemporary, [[Thomas Reid]] (1710–1796), challenged Hume's strict empiricism and argued that it is rational to accept "common-sense" beliefs such as the basic reliability of our senses, our reason, our memories, and inductive reasoning, even though none of these things can be proved. In Reid's view, such common-sense beliefs are foundational and require no proof in order to be rationally justified.{{r|PopkinSkepticism|page=456}} Not long after Hume's death, the German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804) argued that human moral awareness makes no sense unless we reject Hume's skeptical conclusions about the existence of God, the soul, free will, and an afterlife. According to Kant, while Hume was right to claim that we cannot strictly ''know'' any of these things, our moral experience entitles us to believe in them.{{r|PopkinSkepticism|page=457}}


Today, skepticism continues to be a topic of lively debate among philosophers.<ref>See, e.g., John Greco, ed., ''The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.</ref> British philosopher, [[Julian Baggini]], posits that reason is perceived as "an enemy of mystery and ambiguity," but, if used properly can be an effective tool for solving many larger societal issues.<ref name="Radford and Frazier (2017)">{{cite journal |author1=[[Benjamin Radford|Radford, Benjamin]] |author2=[[Kendrick Frazier|Frazier, Kendrick]] |title=The Edge of Reason: A Rational Skeptic in an Irrational World |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |date=January 2017 |volume=41 |issue=1 |page=60}}</ref>
Today, skepticism continues to be a topic of lively debate among philosophers.{{r|Greco2009}} British philosopher [[Julian Baggini]] posits that reason is perceived as "an enemy of mystery and ambiguity," but, if used properly, can be an effective tool for solving many larger societal issues.<ref name="Radford and Frazier (2017)">{{cite journal |author-link1=Benjamin Radford|last1=Radford|first1=Benjamin|author-link2=Kendrick Frazier|last2=Frazier|first2=Kendrick |title=The Edge of Reason: A Rational Skeptic in an Irrational World |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |date=January 2017 |volume=41 |issue=1 |page=60}}</ref>


===Religion===
===Religion===
{{Main|Religious skepticism}}
{{Main|Religious skepticism}}
Religious skepticism generally refers to doubting given religious beliefs or claims. Historically, religious skepticism can be traced back to [[Xenophanes]], who doubted many religious claims of his time. For example, a religious skeptic might believe that [[Jesus]] existed (see [[historicity of Jesus]]) while questioning claims that he was the messiah or performed miracles. Religious skepticism is not the same as [[atheism]] or [[agnosticism]], though these often do involve skeptical attitudes toward religion and philosophical theology (for example, towards divine [[omnipotence]]). Religious people are generally skeptical about claims of other religions, at least when the two denominations conflict concerning some stated belief. Additionally, they may also be skeptical of the claims made by atheists. The historian [[Will Durant]] writes that [[Plato]] was "as skeptical of atheism as of any other dogma".
Religious skepticism generally refers to doubting particular religious beliefs or claims. For example, a religious skeptic might believe that [[Jesus]] existed (see [[historicity of Jesus]]) while questioning claims that he was the messiah or performed miracles. Historically, religious skepticism can be traced back to [[Xenophanes]], who doubted many religious claims of his time, although he recognised that "[[God]] is one, supreme among gods and men, and not like mortals in body or in mind." He maintained that there was one greatest God. God is one eternal being, spherical in form, comprehending all things within himself, is the absolute mind and thought, therefore is intelligent, and moves all things, but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind."<ref>{{cite book |last1=McKirahan |first1=Richard D. |title="Xenophanes of Colophon" |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5UvjwAEACAAJ |website=23 March 2024 |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |page=60-62 |date=1994|isbn=978-0-87220-175-0 }}</ref>


Religious skepticism is not the same as [[atheism]] or [[agnosticism]], though these often do involve skeptical attitudes toward religion and philosophical theology (for example, towards divine [[omnipotence]]). Religious people are generally skeptical about claims of other religions, at least when the two denominations conflict concerning some belief. Additionally, they may also be skeptical of the claims made by atheists.
The [[Baháʼí Faith]] encourages skepticism that is mainly centered around self-investigation of

truth.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Peter |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications |isbn=1-85168-184-1 |pages=266–267}}</ref>
The historian [[Will Durant]] writes that [[Plato]] was "as skeptical of atheism as of any other dogma". The [[Baháʼí Faith]] encourages skepticism that is mainly centered around self-investigation of
truth.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Peter |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith |year=2000 |location=Oxford, U.K.|publisher= Oneworld Publications |isbn=1-85168-184-1 |pages=266–267}}</ref>


===Science===
===Science===
{{Main|Skeptical movement#Scientific skepticism}}
{{Main|Scientific skepticism}}
A scientific or [[empirical]] skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding and empirical evidence.
A scientific or [[empirical]] skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding and empirical evidence.


[[Scientific]] skepticism may discard beliefs pertaining to ''purported phenomena'' not subject to reliable observation and thus not systematic or [[falsifiability|testable]] empirically. Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to a systematic investigation using some type of the [[scientific method]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/scientific_skepticism_csicop_and_the_local_groups|title=Scientific Skepticism, CSICOP, and the Local Groups – CSI|website=www.csicop.org|date=July 1999|access-date=2018-07-05}}</ref> As a result, [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience|a number of claims]] are considered as "[[pseudoscience]]", if they are found to improperly apply or ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method.
[[Scientific]] skepticism may discard beliefs pertaining to ''purported phenomena'' not subject to reliable observation and thus not systematic or empirically [[falsifiability|testable]]. Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to systematic investigation via the [[scientific method]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bloomberg|first1=David|last2=Novella|first2=Steven|url=https://skepticalinquirer.org/1999/07/scientific-skepticism-csicop-and-the-local-groups/|title=Scientific Skepticism, CSICOP, and the Local Groups|journal=Skeptical Inquirer|volume=23|number=4|date=July 1999|access-date=2018-07-05}}</ref> As a result, [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience|a number of ostensibly scientific claims]] are considered to be "[[pseudoscience]]" if they are found to improperly apply or to ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method.


=== Auditing ===
=== Auditing ===
Professional skepticism is an important concept in [[auditing]]. It requires an auditor to have a "questioning mind", to make a critical assessment of evidence, and to consider the sufficiency of the evidence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pcaobus.org/Standards/Auditing/Pages/AU230.aspx#ps-pcaob_1c410f9b-5033-4f18-b865-af1307863bee|title=AU 230 Due Professional Care in the Performance of Work|website=pcaobus.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-04-28}}</ref>
Professional skepticism is an important concept in [[auditing]]. It requires an auditor to have a "questioning mind", to make a critical assessment of evidence, and to consider the sufficiency of the evidence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pcaobus.org/Standards/Auditing/Pages/AU230.aspx#ps-pcaob_1c410f9b-5033-4f18-b865-af1307863bee|title=AU Section 230: Due Professional Care in the Performance of Work|website=Public Company Accounting Oversight Board|year=1972|language=en-US|access-date=2018-04-28|at=Professional Skepticism}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
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{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
{{bots|deny=FrescoBot}}
* [[Critical thinking]]
* {{Annotated link|[[The Amaz!ng Meeting]]}}
* [[Debunker]] (one who claims to expose claims as being false)
* {{Annotated link|[[Critical thinking]]}}
* [[Scientific skepticism]]
* {{Annotated link|[[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]]}}
* [[Pseudoskepticism]] (dogma in the form of skepticism)
* {{Annotated link|[[Debunker]]}}
* [[Trivialism]] (opposite of skepticism)
* {{Annotated link|[[Euroscepticism]]}}
* [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]]
* {{Annotated link|[[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]]}}
* [[The Skeptic (UK magazine)|''The Skeptic'' (UK magazine)]], founded by Wendy M. Grossman, examines secularism and the paranormal
* {{Annotated link|[[Pseudoskepticism]]}}
* [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]], a non-profit organization to encourage the investigation of paranormal and fringe-science
* {{Annotated link|[[Scientific skepticism]]}}
* ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]'', magazine published by the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]]
* {{Annotated link|[[Skeptic (U.S. magazine)|''Skeptic'']]}}
* [[The Skeptics Society]], a nonprofit organization devoted to resisting the spread of pseudoscience, superstition, and irrational beliefs
* [[Skeptic (U.S. magazine)|''Skeptic'' (U.S. magazine)]], magazine of The Skeptics Society
* {{Annotated link|[[The Skeptic (UK magazine)|''The Skeptic'']]}}
* {{Annotated link|[[Skeptical Inquirer|''Skeptical Inquirer'']]}}
* ''[[Skepticality]]'', a biweekly podcast of the US Skeptics Society's ''Skeptic'' magazine
* {{Annotated link|[[Skepticality|''Skepticality'']]}}
* ''[[The Skeptic's Dictionary]]'', a collection of essays by Robert Todd Carroll
* [[Skeptical movement]], a movement based on scientific skepticism, a term introduced by Carl Sagan
* {{Annotated link|[[Skeptical movement]]}}
* {{Annotated link|[[The Skeptic's Dictionary|''The Skeptic's Dictionary'']]}}
* [[Skeptics in the Pub]], a social meet-up group
* {{Annotated link|[[Skeptics in the Pub]]}}
* [[The Amaz!ng Meeting]], an annual conference on science, skepticism, and critical thinking
* {{Annotated link|[[The Skeptics Society]]}}
* {{Annotated link|[[Trivialism]]}}
{{colend}}
{{colend}}


Line 88: Line 98:


==Sources==
==Sources==
* {{cite book|author-link=Panayot Butchvarov|last=Butchvarov|first=Panayot|title=Skepticism About the External World|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1998}}
* ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'', [[Henry George Liddell]] and [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Robert Scott]], revised and augmented throughout by Sir [[Henry Stuart Jones]], with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie, [[Clarendon Press]], Oxford, UK, 1940. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057 Online], perseus.tufts.edu.
* {{cite book|author-link=Richard Hönigswald|first=Richard|last=Hönigswald|title=Die Skepsis in Philosophie und Wissenschaft|orig-year=1914|location=Göttingen|publisher=Edition Ruprecht|year=2008|isbn=978-3-7675-3056-0}}
* [[Panayot Butchvarov|Butchvarov, Panayot]], ''Skepticism About the External World'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 1998).
* {{cite book|last=Keeton|first=Morris T.|chapter=skepticism|pages=277–278|editor-first=Dagobert D.|editor-last=Runes|title=Dictionary of Philosophy|publisher=Littlefield, Adams, and Company|location=Totowa, N.J.|year=1962}}
* {{Citation |last1= Daniels, M.D. |first1= D. |last2= Price, PhD |first2= V. |title= The Essential Enneagram | place = New York | publisher = [[HarperCollins]] | year = 2000}}
* [[Richard Hönigswald]], ''Die Skepsis in Philosophie und Wissenschaft'', 1914, new edition (ed. and introduction by Christian Benne and Thomas Schirren), Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht, 2008, {{ISBN|978-3-7675-3056-0}}
* Keeton, Morris T., "skepticism", pp.&nbsp;277–278 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
* {{cite journal |journal=Logos & Episteme |last=Le Morvan |first=P. |title=Healthy Skepticism and Practical Wisdom |volume=2 |number=1 |date=March 2011 |pages=87–102 |url=http://logos-and-episteme.acadiasi.ro/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/HEALTHY-SKEPTICISM-AND-PRACTICAL-WISDOM.pdf |publisher=Institute for Economic and Social Research |issn=2069-0533 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904064026/https://owd.tcnj.edu/~lemorvan/documents/LE_Skepticism.pdf |archive-date=2019-09-04|doi=10.5840/logos-episteme20112151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |journal=Logos & Episteme |last=Le Morvan |first=P. |title=Healthy Skepticism and Practical Wisdom |volume=2 |number=1 |date=March 2011 |pages=87–102 |url=http://logos-and-episteme.acadiasi.ro/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/HEALTHY-SKEPTICISM-AND-PRACTICAL-WISDOM.pdf |publisher=Institute for Economic and Social Research |issn=2069-0533 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904064026/https://owd.tcnj.edu/~lemorvan/documents/LE_Skepticism.pdf |archive-date=2019-09-04|doi=10.5840/logos-episteme20112151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book|title=[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]|author-link1=Henry George Liddell|first1=Henry George|last1=Liddell|author-link2=Robert Scott (philologist)|first2=Robert|last2=Scott|edition=revised and augmented|author-link3=Henry Stuart Jones|last3=Jones|first3=Henry Stuart|first4=Roderick|last4=McKenzie|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|location=Oxford, U.K.|year=1940}}
* ''Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged'', W.A. Neilson, T.A. Knott, P.W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA, 1950.
* {{cite book|title=Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language|edition=Second, Unabridged|editor-first1=W.A.|editor-last1=Neilson|editor-first2=T.A.|editor-last2=Knott|editor-first3=P.W.|editor-last3=Carhart|publisher=G. & C. Merriam Company|location=Springfield, Mass.|year=1950}}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|title = Don't Get Fooled Again: A Sceptic's Handbook|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RwFEOwAACAAJ|publisher = Icon|year = 2009|isbn = 978-1848310520|language = en|first = Richard|last = Wilson}}
* {{Cite book|title = The Skeptical Tradition|publisher = University of California Press|year = 1983|isbn = 978-0520037472|language = en|first = Myles|last = Burnyeat |author-link=Myles Frederic Burnyeat }}
* {{Cite book|title = The History of Scepticism : From Savonarola to Bayle|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7j8PdlgFRDAC|publisher = Oxford University Press, US|year = 2003|isbn = 978-0198026716|language = en|first = Richard H. |last = Popkin |author-link=Richard Henry Popkin }}
* {{Cite book|title = Sextus Empiricus: Outlines of Pyrrhonism|publisher = Harvard University Press|year = 1933|isbn = 978-0674993013|language = en|first = Robert Gregg|last = Bury |author-link=Robert Gregg Bury }}
* {{Cite book|title = Sextus Empiricus: Outlines of Pyrrhonism|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8WPhjgEACAAJ|publisher = Harvard University Press|year = 1933|isbn = 978-0674993013|language = en|first = Robert Gregg|last = Bury |author-link=Robert Gregg Bury }}
* {{Cite book|title = Sextus Empiricus: Outlines of Scepticism|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mzO77w6KvDgC|url-access=subscription|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = 2000-07-20|isbn = 978-0521778091|language = en|first1 = Sextus|last1 = Empiricus|first2 = Julia|last2 = Annas|first3 = Jonathan|last3 = Barnes |author-link2=Julia Annas |author-link3=Jonathan Barnes }}
* {{Cite book|title = The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake|publisher = Hodder & Stoughton|year = 2018|isbn = 978-1473696419|language = en|first = Steven|last = Novella |author-link=Steven Novella }}
* {{Cite book|title = Sextus Empiricus: Outlines of Scepticism|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mzO77w6KvDgC|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = 2000-07-20|isbn = 978-0521778091|language = en|first1 = Sextus|last1 = Empiricus|first2 = Julia|last2 = Annas|first3 = Jonathan|last3 = Barnes |author-link2=Julia Annas |author-link3=Jonathan Barnes }}
* {{Cite book|title = The Skeptical Tradition|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_5m2kdMwOswC|publisher = University of California Press|year = 1983|isbn = 978-0520037472|language = en|first = Myles|last = Burnyeat |author-link=Myles Frederic Burnyeat }}
* {{Cite book|title = Total Truth:Liberating Christianity from Its Cultural Captivity|publisher = Crossway Books|year = 2005|isbn = 978-1581347463|language = en|first = Nancy|last = Pearcey |author-link=Nancy Pearcey}}
* {{Cite book|title = The History of Scepticism: From Savonarola to Bayle|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7j8PdlgFRDAC|url-access=subscription|publisher = Oxford University Press, US|year = 2003|isbn = 978-0198026716|language = en|first = Richard H. |last = Popkin |author-link=Richard Henry Popkin }}
* {{Cite journal|title = A close look at therapeutic touch|journal = JAMA|date = 1998-04-01|issn = 0098-7484|pages = 1005–1010|volume = 279|issue = 13|doi = 10.1001/jama.279.13.1005|last1 = Rosa L|last2 = Rosa E|last3 = Sarner L|last4 = Barrett S|pmid=9533499|doi-access = free}}
* {{Cite journal|title = A close look at therapeutic touch|journal = JAMA|date = 1998-04-01|issn = 0098-7484|pages = 1005–1010|volume = 279|issue = 13|doi = 10.1001/jama.279.13.1005|last1 = Rosa L|last2 = Rosa E|last3 = Sarner L|last4 = Barrett S|pmid=9533499|doi-access = free|citeseerx = 10.1.1.592.8130}}
* {{Cite book|title = The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4T5fDwAAQBAJ|publisher = Hodder & Stoughton|year = 2018|isbn = 978-1473696419|language = en|first = Steven|last = Novella |author-link=Steven Novella }}
* {{Cite book|title = Total Truth:Liberating Christianity from Its Cultural Captivity|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TZjfyuUJ9yQC|publisher = Crossway Books|year = 2005|isbn = 978-1581347463|language = en|first = Nancy|last = Pearcey |author-link=Nancy Pearcey}}
* {{Cite book|title = The Soul of Science: Christian Faith and Natural Philosophy|publisher = Crossway Books|year = 1994|isbn = 978-0891077664|language = en | first = Charles| last = Thaxton|author-link=Charles B. Thaxton}}
* {{Cite book|title = The Soul of Science: Christian Faith and Natural Philosophy|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6lyoiNuypCUC|publisher = Crossway Books|year = 1994|isbn = 978-0891077664|language = en | first = Charles| last = Thaxton|author-link=Charles B. Thaxton}}
* {{Cite book|title = Don't Get Fooled Again: A Sceptic's Handbook|publisher = Icon|year = 2009|isbn = 978-1848310520|language = en|first = Richard|last = Wilson}}


==External links==
==External links==
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* {{cite IEP |url-id=skepcont/ |title=Contemporary Skepticism |last=Pritchard |first=Duncan}}
* {{cite IEP |url-id=skepcont/ |title=Contemporary Skepticism |last=Pritchard |first=Duncan}}
* {{curlie|Science/Science_in_Society/Skeptical_Inquiry|Skeptical Inquiry}}
* {{curlie|Science/Science_in_Society/Skeptical_Inquiry|Skeptical Inquiry}}
* [https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7915 "Most Scientific Papers are Probably Wrong"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919062923/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7915 |date=19 September 2008 }}, ''[[New Scientist]]'', 30 August 2005
* {{cite journal|first=Kurt|last=Kleiner|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7915|url-status=dead|title=Most Scientific Papers are Probably Wrong|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919062923/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7915 |archive-date=19 September 2008 |journal=[[New Scientist]]|date=30 August 2005}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/articles/19991214-century/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715132139/http://www.csicop.org/articles/19991214-century/|archive-date=2007-07-15|url-status=dead|title=''Skeptical Inquirer'' Magazine Names the Ten Outstanding Skeptics of the Century|website=[[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]]|location=Amherst, N.Y.}}
* [http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4725014 ''Classical Skepticism''] by [[Peter Suber]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070715132139/http://www.csicop.org/articles/19991214-century/ "Outstanding skeptics of the 20th century"] – ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]'' magazine


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{{skepticism}}
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[[Category:Skepticism| ]]
[[Category:Skepticism| ]]
[[Category:Doubt]]
[[Category:Epistemological theories]]
[[Category:Epistemological theories]]
[[Category:Philosophical methodology]]
[[Category:Philosophical methodology]]
[[Category:Philosophical movements]]
[[Category:Philosophical schools and traditions]]
[[Category:Psychological attitude]]
[[Category:Psychological attitude]]
[[Category:Scientific method]]
[[Category:Scientific method]]
[[Category:Doubt]]

Revision as of 17:45, 15 July 2024

Skepticism, also spelled scepticism in British English, is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma.[1] For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the person doubts that these claims are accurate. In such cases, skeptics normally recommend not disbelief but suspension of belief, i.e. maintaining a neutral attitude that neither affirms nor denies the claim. This attitude is often motivated by the impression that the available evidence is insufficient to support the claim. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy, particularly epistemology.

More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality (moral skepticism), atheism (skepticism about the existence of God), or the supernatural.[2] Some theorists distinguish "good" or moderate skepticism, which seeks strong evidence before accepting a position, from "bad" or radical skepticism, which wants to suspend judgment indefinitely.[3][4]

Philosophical skepticism is one important form of skepticism. It rejects knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of common sense. Radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that "knowledge or rational belief is possible" and urge us to suspend judgment on many or all controversial matters. More moderate forms claim only that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about nonempirical matters, such as whether God exists, whether human beings have free will, or whether there is an afterlife. In ancient philosophy, skepticism was understood as a way of life associated with inner peace.[5]

Skepticism has been responsible for many important developments in science and philosophy. It has also inspired several contemporary social movements. Religious skepticism advocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality, providence, and revelation.[6] Scientific skepticism advocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to systematic investigation using the scientific method, to discover empirical evidence for them.

Definition and semantic field

Skepticism, also spelled scepticism (from the Greek σκέπτομαι skeptomai, to search, to think about or look for), refers to a doubting attitude toward knowledge claims.[2][7] So if a person is skeptical of their government's claims about an ongoing war then the person has doubts that these claims are true. Or being skeptical that one's favorite hockey team will win the championship means that one is uncertain about the strength of their performance.[2] Skepticism about a claim implies that one does not believe the claim to be true. But it does not automatically follow that one should believe that the claim is false either. Instead, skeptics usually recommend a neutral attitude: beliefs about this matter should be suspended. In this regard, skepticism about a claim can be defined as the thesis that "the only justified attitude with respect to [this claim] is suspension of judgment".[8] It is often motivated by the impression that one cannot be certain about it. This is especially relevant when there is significant expert disagreement.[9] Skepticism is usually restricted to a claim or a field of inquiry. So religious and moral skeptics have a doubtful attitude about religious and moral doctrines. But some forms of philosophical skepticism, are wider in that they reject any form of knowledge.[9]

Some definitions, often inspired by ancient philosophy, see skepticism not just as an attitude but as a way of life. This is based on the idea that maintaining the skeptical attitude of doubt toward most concerns in life is superior to living in dogmatic certainty, for example because such a skeptic has more happiness and peace of mind or because it is morally better.[2][10] In contemporary philosophy, on the other hand, skepticism is often understood neither as an attitude nor as a way of life but as a thesis: the thesis that knowledge does not exist.[2]

Skepticism is related to various terms. It is sometimes equated with agnosticism and relativism.[4][11][12] However, there are slight differences in meaning. Agnosticism is often understood more narrowly as skepticism about religious questions, in particular, about the Christian doctrine.[11] Relativism does not deny the existence of knowledge or truth but holds that they are relative to a person and differ from person to person, for example, because they follow different cognitive norms.[13] The opposite of skepticism is dogmatism, which implies an attitude of certainty in the form of an unquestioning belief.[14] A similar contrast is often drawn in relation to blind faith and credulity.[3]

Types

Various types of skepticism have been discussed in the academic literature. Skepticism is usually restricted to knowledge claims on one particular subject, which is why its different forms can be distinguished based on the subject.[2][7][9] For example, religious skeptics distrust religious doctrines and moral skeptics raise doubts about accepting various moral requirements and customs. Skepticism can also be applied to knowledge in general. However, this attitude is usually only found in some forms of philosophical skepticism.[2][7] A closely related classification distinguishes based on the source of knowledge, such as skepticism about perception, memory, or intuition.[15] A further distinction is based on the degree of the skeptical attitude. The strongest forms assert that there is no knowledge at all or that knowledge is impossible. Weaker forms merely state that one can never be absolutely certain.[2]

Some theorists distinguish between a good or healthy form of moderate skepticism in contrast to a bad or unhealthy form of radical skepticism. On this view, the "good" skeptic is a critically-minded person who seeks strong evidence before accepting a position. The "bad" skeptic, on the other hand, wants to "suspend judgment indefinitely... even in the face of demonstrable truth".[3][4] Another categorization focuses on the motivation for the skeptical attitude. Some skeptics have ideological motives: they want to replace inferior beliefs with better ones. Others have a more practical outlook in that they see problematic beliefs as the cause of harmful customs they wish to stop. Some skeptics have very particular goals in mind, such as bringing down a certain institution associated with the spread of claims they reject.[2][7]

Philosophical skepticism is a prominent form of skepticism and can be contrasted with non-philosophical or ordinary skepticism. Ordinary skepticism involves a doubting attitude toward knowledge claims that are rejected by many.[8] Almost everyone shows some form of ordinary skepticism, for example, by doubting the knowledge claims made by flat earthers or astrologers.[2][7] Philosophical skepticism, on the other hand, is a much more radical and rare position. It includes the rejection of knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of common sense. Some forms of it even deny that one knows that "I have two hands" or that "the sun will come out tomorrow".[8][16] It is taken seriously in philosophy nonetheless because it has proven very hard to conclusively refute philosophical skepticism.[2][8]

In various fields

Skepticism has been responsible for important developments in various fields, such as science, medicine, and philosophy. In science, the skeptical attitude toward traditional opinions was a key factor in the development of the scientific method. It emphasizes the need to scrutinize knowledge claims by testing them through experimentation and precise measurement.[14][17] In the field of medicine, skepticism has helped establish more advanced forms of treatment by putting into doubt traditional forms that were based on intuitive appeal rather than empirical evidence.[3][14] In the history of philosophy, skepticism has often played a productive role not just for skeptics but also for non-skeptical philosophers.[2][7][18] This is due to its critical attitude that challenges the epistemological foundations of philosophical theories. This can help to keep speculation in check and may provoke creative responses, transforming the theory in question in order to overcome the problems posed by skepticism.[2][7] According to Richard H. Popkin, "the history of philosophy can be seen, in part, as a struggle with skepticism". This struggle has led many contemporary philosophers to abandon the quest for absolutely certain or indubitable first principles of philosophy, which was still prevalent in many earlier periods.[7] Skepticism has been an important topic throughout the history of philosophy and is still widely discussed today.[2]

Philosophy

As a philosophical school or movement, skepticism arose both in ancient Greece and India. In India the Ajñana school of philosophy espoused skepticism. It was a major early rival of Buddhism and Jainism, and possibly a major influence on Buddhism. Two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, Sariputta and Moggallāna, were initially students of the Ajñana philosopher Sanjaya Belatthiputta. A strong element of skepticism is found in Early Buddhism, most particularly in the Aṭṭhakavagga sutra. However the total effect these philosophies had on each other is difficult to discern. Since skepticism is a philosophical attitude and a style of philosophizing rather than a position, the Ajñanins may have influenced other skeptical thinkers of India such as Nagarjuna, Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa, and Shriharsha.[19][full citation needed]

In Greece, philosophers as early as Xenophanes (c. 570c. 475 BCE) expressed skeptical views, as did Democritus[20] and a number of Sophists. Gorgias, for example, reputedly argued that nothing exists, that even if there were something we could not know it, and that even if we could know it we could not communicate it.[21] The Heraclitean philosopher Cratylus refused to discuss anything and would merely wriggle his finger, claiming that communication is impossible since meanings are constantly changing.[22]: 449  Socrates also had skeptical tendencies, claiming to know nothing worthwhile.[23]

Pyrrho of Elis was the founder of the school of skepticism known as Pyrrhonism.

There were two major schools of skepticism in the ancient Greek and Roman world. The first was Pyrrhonism, founded by Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360–270 BCE). The second was Academic Skepticism, so-called because its two leading defenders, Arcesilaus (c. 315–240 BCE) who initiated the philosophy, and Carneades (c. 217–128 BCE), the philosophy's most famous proponent, were heads of Plato's Academy. Pyrrhonism's aims are psychological. It urges suspension of judgment (epoche) to achieve mental tranquility (ataraxia). The Academic Skeptics denied that knowledge is possible (acatalepsy). The Academic Skeptics claimed that some beliefs are more reasonable or probable than others, whereas Pyrrhonian skeptics argue that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any disputed view.[22]: 450  Nearly all the writings of the ancient skeptics are now lost. Most of what we know about ancient skepticism is from Sextus Empiricus, a Pyrrhonian skeptic who lived in the second or third century CE. His works contain a lucid summary of stock skeptical arguments.

Ancient skepticism faded out during the late Roman Empire, particularly after Augustine (354–430 CE) attacked the skeptics in his work Against the Academics (386 CE). There was little knowledge of, or interest in, ancient skepticism in Christian Europe during the Middle Ages. Interest revived during the Renaissance and Reformation, particularly after the complete writings of Sextus Empiricus were translated into Latin in 1569 and after Martin Luther's skepticism of holy orders.[24] A number of Catholic writers, including Francisco Sanches (c. 1550–1623), Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592), Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), and Marin Mersenne (1588–1648) deployed ancient skeptical arguments to defend moderate forms of skepticism and to argue that faith, rather than reason, must be the primary guide to truth. Similar arguments were offered later (perhaps ironically) by the Protestant thinker Pierre Bayle in his influential Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697–1702).[25]: chaps. 1 & 2 

The growing popularity of skeptical views created an intellectual crisis in seventeenth-century Europe. An influential response was offered by the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650). In his classic work, Meditations of First Philosophy (1641), Descartes sought to refute skepticism, but only after he had formulated the case for skepticism as powerfully as possible. Descartes argued that no matter what radical skeptical possibilities we imagine there are certain truths (e.g., that thinking is occurring, or that I exist) that are absolutely certain. Thus, the ancient skeptics were wrong to claim that knowledge is impossible. Descartes also attempted to refute skeptical doubts about the reliability of our senses, our memory, and other cognitive faculties. To do this, Descartes tried to prove that God exists and that God would not allow us to be systematically deceived about the nature of reality. Many contemporary philosophers question whether this second stage of Descartes's critique of skepticism is successful.[25]: 210 

In the eighteenth century a new case for skepticism was offered by the Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711–1776). Hume was an empiricist, claiming that all genuine ideas can be traced back to original impressions of sensation or introspective consciousness. Hume argued that on empiricist grounds there are no sound reasons for belief in God, an enduring self or soul, an external world, causal necessity, objective morality, or inductive reasoning. In fact, he argued that "Philosophy would render us entirely Pyrrhonian, were not Nature too strong for it."[22]: 456  As Hume saw it, the real basis of human belief is not reason, but custom or habit. We are hard-wired by nature to trust, say, our memories or inductive reasoning, and no skeptical arguments, however powerful, can dislodge those beliefs. In this way, Hume embraced what he called a "mitigated" skepticism, while rejecting an "excessive" Pyrrhonian skepticism that he saw as both impractical and psychologically impossible.

Hume's skepticism provoked a number of important responses. Hume's Scottish contemporary, Thomas Reid (1710–1796), challenged Hume's strict empiricism and argued that it is rational to accept "common-sense" beliefs such as the basic reliability of our senses, our reason, our memories, and inductive reasoning, even though none of these things can be proved. In Reid's view, such common-sense beliefs are foundational and require no proof in order to be rationally justified.[22]: 456  Not long after Hume's death, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that human moral awareness makes no sense unless we reject Hume's skeptical conclusions about the existence of God, the soul, free will, and an afterlife. According to Kant, while Hume was right to claim that we cannot strictly know any of these things, our moral experience entitles us to believe in them.[22]: 457 

Today, skepticism continues to be a topic of lively debate among philosophers.[2] British philosopher Julian Baggini posits that reason is perceived as "an enemy of mystery and ambiguity," but, if used properly, can be an effective tool for solving many larger societal issues.[26]

Religion

Religious skepticism generally refers to doubting particular religious beliefs or claims. For example, a religious skeptic might believe that Jesus existed (see historicity of Jesus) while questioning claims that he was the messiah or performed miracles. Historically, religious skepticism can be traced back to Xenophanes, who doubted many religious claims of his time, although he recognised that "God is one, supreme among gods and men, and not like mortals in body or in mind." He maintained that there was one greatest God. God is one eternal being, spherical in form, comprehending all things within himself, is the absolute mind and thought, therefore is intelligent, and moves all things, but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind."[27]

Religious skepticism is not the same as atheism or agnosticism, though these often do involve skeptical attitudes toward religion and philosophical theology (for example, towards divine omnipotence). Religious people are generally skeptical about claims of other religions, at least when the two denominations conflict concerning some belief. Additionally, they may also be skeptical of the claims made by atheists.

The historian Will Durant writes that Plato was "as skeptical of atheism as of any other dogma". The Baháʼí Faith encourages skepticism that is mainly centered around self-investigation of truth.[28]

Science

A scientific or empirical skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding and empirical evidence.

Scientific skepticism may discard beliefs pertaining to purported phenomena not subject to reliable observation and thus not systematic or empirically testable. Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to systematic investigation via the scientific method.[29] As a result, a number of ostensibly scientific claims are considered to be "pseudoscience" if they are found to improperly apply or to ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method.

Auditing

Professional skepticism is an important concept in auditing. It requires an auditor to have a "questioning mind", to make a critical assessment of evidence, and to consider the sufficiency of the evidence.[30]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Pritchard, Duncan (2006). "Contemporary Skepticism". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009. Philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Greco, John (2 September 2009). "Introduction". The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 3–7. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195183214.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-518321-4.
  3. ^ a b c d Raynaud, Maurice (1 May 1981). "Skepticism in Medicine: Past and Present". The Linacre Quarterly. 48 (2). ISSN 0024-3639.
  4. ^ a b c Sandkühler, Hans Jörg, ed. (2010). "Skepsis/Skeptizismus". Enzyklopädie Philosophie. Meiner.
  5. ^ Bett, Richard Arnot Home (28 January 2010). The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism. Cambridge University Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-521-87476-2.
  6. ^ "skepticism (noun)". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Popkin, Richard H. "skepticism". Britannica. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
  8. ^ a b c d Comesaña, Juan; Klein, Peter (2019). "Skepticism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  9. ^ a b c Blackburn, Simon (1 January 2008). "scepticism". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954143-0.
  10. ^
  11. ^ a b Newton Flew, Antony Garrard. "agnosticism". Britannica. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  12. ^ Sankey, Howard (1 March 2012). "Scepticism, relativism and the argument from the criterion". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 43 (1): 182–190. Bibcode:2012SHPSA..43..182S. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.12.026. ISSN 0039-3681.
  13. ^ Baghramian, Maria; Carter, J. Adam (2022). "Relativism: 4.4 Epistemic relativism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  14. ^ a b c Laursen, John Christian (2018). "Skepticism". New Dictionary of the History of Ideas.
  15. ^ Cohen, Stewart (1996). Craig, Edward (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge.
  16. ^ Olsson, Erik J. (2005). "Not Giving the Skeptic a Hearing: 'Pragmatism and Radical Doubt'". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 70 (1): 98–126. doi:10.1111/j.1933-1592.2005.tb00507.x. ISSN 0031-8205. JSTOR 40040781.
  17. ^ Lagerlund, Henrik (29 April 2020). "Non-Philosophical Skepticism". Skepticism in Philosophy: A Comprehensive, Historical Introduction. Routledge. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-351-36995-4.
  18. ^ Daly, Chris (2015). "Introduction and Historical Overview". The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods. U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–30. doi:10.1057/9781137344557_1. ISBN 978-1-137-34455-7.
  19. ^ Matilal 2004, pp. 52–75.
  20. ^
  21. ^ Jones, W. T. (1952). A History of Western Philosophy. New York: Harcourt, Brace. p. 60 n. 45.
  22. ^ a b c d e Popkin, Richard H. (1967). "Skepticism". In Edwards, Paul (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 7. New York: Macmillan.
  23. ^ Hazlett, Allan (2014). A Critical Introduction to Skepticism. London: Bloomsbury. pp. 4–5.
  24. ^ Daughtrity, Dyron B. (2017). Martin Luther: A Biography for the People. Abilene Christian University Press. p. 358. ISBN 978-0-89112-468-9. Retrieved 11 February 2023.
  25. ^ a b Popkin, Richard H. (1979). The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza (revised ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
  26. ^ Radford, Benjamin; Frazier, Kendrick (January 2017). "The Edge of Reason: A Rational Skeptic in an Irrational World". Skeptical Inquirer. 41 (1): 60.
  27. ^ McKirahan, Richard D. (1994). "Xenophanes of Colophon". Hackett Publishing Company. p. 60-62. ISBN 978-0-87220-175-0. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  28. ^ Smith, Peter (2000). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith. Oxford, U.K.: Oneworld Publications. pp. 266–267. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.
  29. ^ Bloomberg, David; Novella, Steven (July 1999). "Scientific Skepticism, CSICOP, and the Local Groups". Skeptical Inquirer. 23 (4). Retrieved 5 July 2018.
  30. ^ "AU Section 230: Due Professional Care in the Performance of Work". Public Company Accounting Oversight Board. 1972. Professional Skepticism. Retrieved 28 April 2018.

Sources

Further reading