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Imamate in Twelver doctrine

This is a sub-article to Imamah (Shia doctrine) and is specifically about the Twelver Shia concept of the term.
For other uses, see Theology of Twelvers.

Imāmah (Arabic: إِمَامَة) means "leadership" and is a concept in Twelver theology. The Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, in the Twelver branch of Shia Islam.[1] According to Twelver theology, the successors to Muhammad are infallible human beings, who rule justly over the community and maintain and interpret sharia and undertake the esoteric interpretation of the Quran. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams guide the community. For this, the Imams must be free from error and sin and chosen by divine decree—nass—through the Prophet.[2][3]

Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, Iraq, where the Battle of Karbala took place

Shi'a believe that divine wisdom—'Aql—is the source of the souls of the Prophets and Imams and gives them esoteric knowledge—hikmah—and that their suffering is a means by which their devotees may acquire divine grace.[citation needed] The Imam is not the recipient of divine revelation, but has a close relationship with God, who guides him, allowing the Imam in turn to guide others. The Imamat, or belief in the divine guide, is a fundamental belief in Shia Islam and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance.[4] According to the Twelvers, an Imam of the Age is always the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law. Ali was the first Imam in this line and in the view of Twelvers the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by the male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah. Each Imam was the son of the previous Imam, with the exception of Husayn ibn Ali, who was the brother of Hasan ibn Ali.[1] The twelfth and final Imam is Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is believed by the Twelvers to be alive and in hiding.[4]

Function of imam

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The office of imamate is bestowed upon the figure of imam (lit. 'leader' or 'master'),[5] whose function in Sunni Islam is to implement the divine law and manage the community affairs.[6] In this sense, imam is synonymous to caliph in Sunni Islam as the highest temporal authority.[7]

In Shia Islam, the figure of imam dominates the belief system.[8] Necessarily a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad,[9] imam is the supreme leader that combines both temporal and religious authorities,[10] for the two were combined in Muhammad.[11] Various Shia sects, however, disagreed over the identity of these imams.[9]

In Twelver Shi’ism, Muhammad is believed to have been succeeded by a line of twelve imams from his descent,[12] who also inherited his divine knowledge of religion.[13] Even though these twelve imams are thought to have been entitled to temporal authority to manage Muslim affairs,[14] their status in Twelver Shi’ism does not depend upon it,[15] as they instead owed their status to their divinely-sanctioned designation by their predecessors (nass).[16] Indeed, temporal leadership only materialized for the first of the twelve imams, Ali ibn Abi Talib, who reigned from 661 CE until his assassination in 665.[17]

Exoteric function

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Whereas Muhammad brought divine revelation and taught divine law to his followers, the twelve imams interpreted the revelation and safeguarded the religion against innovations in their capacity as law-givers and guardians of religion.[18] At this exoteric level, many teachings of these imams are general enough to be accepted by Sunnis, who regard many of the imams as outstanding religious scholars.[19]

Esoteric function

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In addition to their exoteric function,[20] the twelve imams, by virtue of their divine knowledge, are regarded as the sole authoritative guides toward salvation,[21] as they initiated a small group of their followers into esoteric aspects of the religion.[12] This function of imams, as spiritual leaders after Muhammad, is known as walaya or wilaya, which is described as the esoteric aspect of prophecy,[22] for Muhammad too, in his capacity as an imam, was a spiritual guide.[23] More broadly, walaya denotes the exclusive religio-political authority of imams.[24] Walaya is also the all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty that binds true followers to their imams, a bond that transcends politics and self-interest.[25] To sum, in Twelver Shi'ism, the twelve imams hold the ultimate religious authority, both in matters of law and spiritual guidance, as an extension of Muhammad’s authority.[26] Their duty is essentially threefold: first, rule the community as Muhammad’s rightful successors,[27] second, teach hidden aspects of the revelation and authoritatively interpret ambiguous verses of the Quran,[28] and third, guide men in their spiritual life.[27] At an even more esoteric level, imams are often regarded as intermediaries between God and mankind.[29] In this world, they are thought to be the source of sustenance and divine blessings for the creation and, in the hereafter, they intercede for their followers ,[30] whereas the prerogative of intercession is limited to the Islamic prophet in Sunni Islam. [31] However, some Shia scholars reject such supernatural functions.[32]

Existence of imam

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In Twelver Shi'ism, imamate is a rational necessity.[33] One rational argument in favor of imamate contends that mankind has a permanent need for a divinely-guided (infallible) leader and an authoritative teacher in religion,[34] one that would expound the divine law and correctly interpret the revelation.[35] As the high custodian of religion, this leader would also execute the divine law and judge among men.[36] Such a leader, it is argued, is necessary for the welfare and salvation of the community.[37] Providing this figure, called imam, is therefore incumbent upon God, as an obligatory grace (lutf wajib), for He acts in the best interest of the creation.[38] Conversely, absence of such an imam would imply that God is both uncaring, for He has neglected His creation, and unjust, for He would punish men without providing them with right guidance.[39] Just as it is incumbent upon God to send prophets who would teach mankind divine knowledge, it is incumbent upon Him to preserve and expound this knowledge through imams.[40] In short, imamate is the continuation of prophecy.[41] Thus it is argued that imamate is a continuous necessity, that is, Earth has never been devoid of such an imam.[42] There could only be one such imam at any time. As long as he lived, his successor would be a silent (samit) imam.[43]

Qualifications of imam

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Divine designation and knowledge, both of which the imam inherits through his successor from Muhammad, are the key markers of imamate in Twelver Shi'ism.[44]

Divinely-sanctioned designation (nass)

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In Twelver doctrine, imamate is confined to descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, from the marriage of his daughter Fatima to his cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib.[45] Every imam is believed to have been designated by his predecessor, following a divine mandate, going back successively to the announcement of Muhammad about Ali ibn Abi Talib at the Ghadir Khumm.[46] The imamate transferred from Ali to his eldest son Hasan, then to his brother Husayn, and then to nine of his descendants.[47] The authority of imams has therefore been legitimized through “apostolic succession,” rather than political leadership.[48] Indeed, except the first three of them, the imams were largely apolitical,[49] even though most likely they all had claims to political leadership,[50] but did not come forward out of fear of persecution.[51] Some instead suggest that these imams had no political claims.[52] At any rate, this hereditary nature of imamate thus closed the field to outside claimants.[53] Nass is often accompanied in Shia sources by inheritance of secret religious scrolls and the prophet's weapons.[54] The latter paralleled the Ark of the Covenant for the Israelites.[55]

Designation is a logical necessity in Twelver doctrine of imamate, in which imams are thought to have been infallible, that is, immune from sin and error.[56] Indeed, only an infallible imam can correctly identify his infallible successor. The appointment of imam must also be sanctioned by God, for infallibility is a hidden virtue known to God.[57]

Divinely-inspired knowledge (ilm)

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Rather than political power, Twelvers’ doctrine of imamate revolves around the esoteric knowledge of their quiescenct imams,[58] who are thought to have successively inherited the divine knowledge of Muhammad about religion.[59] Even though the twelve imams did not receive revelation as prophets did, they were divinely-inspired,[60] and were spoken to by angels.[61] Imams are also said to have inherited certain secret texts, such as Sahifa, Jafr, Jami’a, Mushaf of Fatima.[62] For example, Jami'a supposedly contains knowledge of what is licit and illicit.[63]

Imams thus perfectly knew exoteric aspects of the religion, such as tradition and jurisprudence, and its esoteric aspects, such as hidden and allegorical interpretations of the Quran.[64] The near consensus is that imams did not have knowledge of the unseen (ilm al-ghiyb), but were granted glimpses of it as a divine favor.[65] This was indeed the view held by al-Mufid (d. 1022), Sharif al-Murtada (d. 1044), al-Tusi (d. 1067), three prominent Twelver scholars.[66] But some have instead argued that imams were omniscient or nearly so,[67] including Ibn Babawayh (d. 991), another prominent Twelver scholar.[68] It is thus said that imams knew the Greatest Name of God,Template:Sfnn, the past, the present, and the future.[69] At even more esoteric level, imams are the manifestation of the knowable God, that is, what can be known about God to His creation.[69]

Other features of imam

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Infallibility (isma)

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Main article: Ismah

As with the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the twelve imams are regarded as infallible in Twelver Shi'ism, that is, protected from sin and error through divine grace. The scope of this isma has been debated, but at least covers imams’ religious rulings and views.[70]

Infallibility of imams, in their capacity as divinely-sanctioned leaders, is viewed as a logical necessity in Twelver Shi'ism lest the religion is corrupted,[71] or people are led astray.[72] This infallibility, however, is not viewed as inability to sin. Rather, the esoteric knowledge of prophets and imams, for instance, their vivid understanding of God’s punishment,[citation needed] produces a faculty that prevents them from disobedience of God.[73] That is, their infallibility is a byproduct of their divine knowledge.[74]


Best of men

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As the Imam is infallible (masum), he is the best of his age, otherwise, Allah would choose another.[75] Ontologically the fourteen infallibles are superior to prophets, since they are created from a nobler matter.[76] Before the creation of the world, from His own light, Allah derived a light called light of Nubuwwa (prophethood) or exoteric and from that derived another light called Walaya (Imamah) or esoteric. Allah said "Here is a Light from my Light, its trunk is the prophecy and its branch is the Imamate; prophecy belongs to Muhammad, my servant and messenger and Imamate belongs to Ali, my proof and my friend. Without them, I would have created none of my creation..." The very names of prophecy and Imamate are derived from the names of Allah.[77] Allah has two kinds of attributes: Essence (Dhat) and Act (Fi'l); attributes of Essence exist in Allah Himself, not having its opposites, but attributes of the act, the Most Beautiful Names of Allah, are those which are manifested in His creatures, these creatures of manifestation of these attributes are Imams.Through these creatures, men could know His attributes.This is His plan to make Himself known.[78] By verse 2:124, Shia believe that the position of Imamate is higher than prophethood.[79] Shia believe that Imam is God's Witness for the people, the Gate to God (bāb Allāh) and the Road (sabīl) and the Pillar of His Unity[80] so he should be infallible and chosen by God.[80] Muḥammad al-Bāqir narrates that God chose Ibraham first as a worshipper (ʿabd), then a prophet (nabī), then a messenger (rasūl), then a friend (khalīl) and finally as an Imam over the people.[81] The Imams in many passages of Quran are referred as the Light of God (Nur), His Witnesses among mankind (Shuhada), His Signs (Ayat), those firm in the knowledge (Rasikhun), the vicegerents of God on earth (Khulafa), the gates through which he is approached (Abwab), the heirs of the knowledge of the prophet.The Imam is endowed with the holy spirit (Ruh al-Kuds).[82]

Vicegerent (Khalifat Allah)

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The Imam as vicegerent is the representative of all of God's attributes, whom he manifests. The Imam is God's image and face.[83]

Mediator

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Allamah al-Majlisi states that the Imams are mediators between God and humankind and that through their intercession, man can escape the punishment of the last day. In addition to Muhammad's role as intermediate between God and man, he is also a mediator before God on behalf of his followers. According to Shia belief, this idea of a religious mediator includes the Imams.[84] Al-Shaykh al-Saduq has recorded a tradition that the prophet told Ali: "There are three things that I swear to be true. The first is that you and your descendants are mediators for mankind, as they will not be able to know Allah except through your introduction. The second is that you are to present to Allah those who may enter Paradise, i.e. those who recognize you and those whom you recognize. The third is that you are the absolute mediators, for those who will go to Hell will only be those who do not recognize you and whom you do not recognize." Al-Baqir said, "through us God is known and is worshiped by human kind...whoever calls Allah through our mediation is blessed".[85] Without Imam, theophanic form (mazhar) and Face of Allah, no one can know Allah because through him, Allah manifests himself.[86][failed verification] Mulla Sadra explains that as the Imam is the perfect man—insan al-Kamel—is a higher-degree creature and the existence of the lower depends upon the higher degree, so the existence of the Imam is necessary.[87][failed verification]

Wali

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Main article: Walayah (Twelver doctrine)

Shia believe that the Divine Truth or the True Religion has two aspects: exoteric (zahir) and esoteric (batin). The exoteric side is revealed by the prophet and his Holy Book to the general people but the esoteric side is the mission of Imams and for the believers by the Esoteric interpretation of the Quran(Ta'wil).[88] As the exoteric speaks of Shariah and esoteric speaks of Haqiqah, it is not a matter of succession but a matter of simultaneity.[89] Haqiqah is based on the spiritual meaning of Quran.[90] The kinship between the prophet and Imams is the sign of their walayah, not the basis for their walayah.[91] According to Shia just those are the real faithful that "Allah has written faith upon their hearts" (58:22): only if Walayah is obtained the faith is perfect.[92] Shia theologians refer to the verse 5:55 as a proof for the Walayah of Imams.[93][unreliable source?] According to Motahhari, Walayah has four dimensions: the right of love, loving the Ahl al-Bayt is obligatory for all Muslims, the authority of Alh al-Bayt in spiritual guidance, the authority of Ahl al-Bayt in socio-political guidance and the authority of the universal nature by the grace of Allah.[94][unreliable source?] By Shia, in fact, a guardian must protect the religion against any additions or subtractions after the prophet. According to al-Baqir, the prophet has revealed the religion but in every age there must be an Imam who leads to the religion and verse 13:7 refers to Imam.[95] A hadith narrates that "He who knows himself knows his Lord.",[96] but knowing Allah without His theophanic form (Mazhar), the Face of Allah, is impossible. Imam is the one who carries the human knowledge of Allah, without him we will be trapped in ta'til or metaphysical idolatry (tashbih)."[97][failed verification] Numerous Shia hadith narrate: The Quran is the silent Imam, the Imam is the speaking Quran; Imam is the Guide by whom Quran remains alive. Regarding this matter, Mulla Sadra believes that the earth can not be without an Imam otherwise, the Quran will die.[98][failed verification] By Shia, Wali is the one who has the most love and devotion to God, so God has bestowed His knowledge upon him.[99]

Hujjah

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See also: Hujja

The Hujja means the proof or God's guarantee to men; as the presence of the Hujja, whether hidden or apparent, is necessary for all times, this presence expresses the metaphysical reality of the Hujja and the inseparability of the prophetology from Imamology.[100] Al-Baqir stated, "...Imam is the Proof of Allah to His servants and the earth will not remain without the Proof of Allah to His servants".[101] From the Time of Adam, Allah has sent Imams to guide the people towards Him who are His Hujjah upon His worshippers.[102] Khomeni described "Proof of Allah" as follows: "A ‘Proof of Allah’ is one whom Allah has designated to conduct affairs, all his deeds, actions and sayings constitute a proof for the Muslims. If someone commits an offense, will be made to the ‘proof’ for adducing evidence and formulating the charge. If the ‘proof’ commands you to perform a certain act, to implement the penal provisions of the law in a certain way, or to spend the income derived from booty, zakat and sadaqa in a certain manner and if you fail to obey him in any of these respects, then God Almighty will advance a ‘proof’ against you on the day of Judgment".[103][unreliable source?]

Political aspect

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The Shia believe that only the divinely chosen one is the legitimate leader of the community who owns some spiritual gifts. The first of these leaders was Ali ibn Abi Talib and his successors were the descendants of the prophet and the heirs of the charisma of Ali.[104] Imams possess all the attributes, duties, authorities of the prophet except receiving revelation. They are the political and religious guardians over the community.[105][unreliable source?] Although Imam has a political role, his Imamah does not depend on this role.[82] According to verse 5:55, because absolute authority belongs to Allah, He can grant this authority to whomever He wishes as Guardians.[106][unreliable source?] Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr stated that the political and spiritual dimensions are inseparable.[41]

The necessity of recognizing Imams

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According to Ja'far al-Sadiq: " We are the ones to whom Allah has made obedience obligatory. The people will not prosper unless they recognize us and the people will not be excused if they are ignorant of us. He who has recognised us is a believer (Momin) and he who has denied us is an unbeliever (Kafir)"...[107] Al-Riza remarks that "....whoever tends not to be separated from Allah, he love the household of Mohammad ...and follow his Imam, whoever does this is under the mercy of Allah..."[108] Kulaini, Na'mani attributed a tradition to al-Baqir that those who worship Allah without recognizing his righteous Imam are not accepted.[109]

The necessity of obeying Imams

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If the Imamate of Imams is not affirmed, one can not enter into heaven.[35] Al-Baqir states that according to verse 42:23, the believers must both obey and love the Imams.[110] Shia believe that Imamah is inseparable from Wilayah, which involves loving ahl al-Bayt (Imams), obeying them in their commands and prohibitions, recognising their rights and believing in their Imamat and that this is one of the five principles (usul) of Shia.[111] According to al-Khu'i: "the wilayat and imamate in the meaning of succession (khilafat) is an essential part (dharuriy) of Shi'ism; anyone who rejects this dimension of the wilayat would not be considered as a Shia".[94] Muhammad Baqir Majlisi states: "All the Imamis agree that the spiritual validity of deeds and Allah's approval of them are conditioned by faith (Imam); this point is as integral a part of faith as is love for the Twelve Imams and their imamate."[112] Sajjad, the fourth Imam, states that the religion is attained only through submission and whoever submits to the Imams is guided and blissful. Obeying the Imams is obligatory because Allah has thus commanded.[113][unreliable source?]

Guidance is only through Imams

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According to Tabatabaei (21:73, 32:24) the word guidance is used side by side by the word Imamah and is followed by "our command", a kind of guidance with a divine command that conveys humankind to the final truth, not just showing the way.[114][unreliable source?] According to Mesbahyazdi, while Allah is the Creator, all praise is due to Him and He is the only ontological (takwini) and legislative (tashri'e) Lord. So everyone who wishes to be a servant and a monotheist should accept His legislative laws and accept the executer of His laws, because this is His Will (Iradah).[115][unreliable source?] A mutawatir hadith narrates that loving the prophet's family (Ahl al-Bayt) is the sign of faith and enmity towards them is the sign of hypocrisy.[116] According to Mottahari, everyone who does not accept walayah, he is in enmity with walayah which causes his deeds to be worthless (6:88, 18:105, 14:18,3:117, 25:23), because he is not humble before the Truth which is the basis of a pure deed.[117][unreliable source?] Many hadith introduce Imam as the Guide because there is no knowledge of Allah accessible to man without the knowledge of Imam.[118] Through hadiths, in order to reach to Allah, man must pass the Path (Sirat) who are the Imams.[119]

Imamate and revelation (Wahy)

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As Muhammad was the last person to receive revelation, the Imams receive divine inspiration (elham) and, as such, are in contact with the holy source of knowledge.[120] A hadith narrates that "Imam hears the voice of the Angel, but does not have his vision, either in sleep or in waking".[121] Imams get Revelation but not like the prophets. They are called Muhaddatht and are spoken to by angels via sounds through their ears and are supported by the Holy Spirit. They receive additional information on the Night of Power Laylat al-Qadr. They make Spiritual Ascension to the Divine Throne on Friday to add their knowledge.[122]

Arguments

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Shia view of Quran

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Shias claim the verse of Light (24:35) is attributed to The Fourteen Infallible.[123] According to Shia sources on the nature and basis of Imamate, H al-Baqir emphasizes that verse 5:55 refers to Ali.[124] According to al-Baqir's interpretation of verse 35:32, Imams are "Then we caused to inherit the Book those We have chosen of Our servants".[125] Shias mind verse 4:59, which signifies a perfect love and obedience to divine guides.[41]

Other Shia sources claim that Imams are expressed in Quran as: "the Supreme Sign" (al-Ayat al-Kobra) (79:20), "the August Symbol" (al-Mathal al-a'la) (16:60), "the Most Solid Handle" (al-Urwat al-Wuthqa) (2:256), (31:22).[78] According to al-Baqir Imams are the Light of Allah (64:8, 57:28).[126] These verses (28:68, 2:30, 38:26, 2:124, 21:73) state that Imamate is a divine appointment and a fallible person can not be an Imam.[127][unreliable source?] Wilferd Madelung, regarding the blood ties which is found in Quran, states the superiority of Ali for his succession.[128] Regarding verse 2:124, Tabatabaei states that Imamah is a divine status, Imam must be Ma'sum (infallible), the earth can not be without an Imam, Imam have the complete knowledge which is related to this world and the next of the people, Imam excels all people in all virtues.[129][unreliable source?] However it is argued by many scholars that the 12 Shia Imams have not been mentioned in the Quran.[citation needed]

By reason

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Al-Baqir states that while people need a guide for their journey to a strange place, their journey to heaven is stranger and more in need of a guide.[130] Al-Mufid states that an Imam is necessary for defining the exact laws that are obligatory upon the Muslims.[131] Many verses in Quran are ambiguous, revelation of Quran without further explanation is unlikely from Allah.[35] While Imamate brings the people nearer to obedience and away from disobedience, it is Grace (Lutf) that is incumbent of Allah.[132][unreliable source?] Regarding rejecting the Imamah-doctrine, Allamah Al-Hilli, a 14th century Shi'a Twelver Islamic scholar, writes: "Imamah is a universal grace (lutf ‘amm) while Nubuwwah (prophethood) is a special grace (lutf khass), it is possible that a specific period in time can be void of a living Nabi while the same is not true for the Imam. To reject universal grace is worse than to reject any special grace.[133][unreliable source?] The prophet founded an eternal Shari'ah for all the times and this eternal religion could not continue without a leader.[134][unreliable source?]

History

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Main article: The Twelve Imams

In the period of Minor Occultation, theologians like Ibn Qube Razi, Newbakhtis, al-Shaykh al-Mufid, Seyyed Morteza and al-Shaykh al-Tusi rebuild the theological school of Imamiyah.[135] In the second and third century of Hijra, a Ma'sum (infallible) and divinely chosen leader of the religion was more focused than the political role of the Imams by the theologians.[136] Although Imamiyah believed that most of the works on the early Islamic centuries argue that Shi'ism began as a political movement rather than a religious group.[104] However this does not mean that religious sentiments were absent in the first century.[137]

Dakake believes that the doctrine of Imamate was established in the time of Ja'far al-Sadiq, while Kohlberg states that the Twelver Shi'ism dates back not much before the beginning of the "Major_Occultation".[138]

Muhammad is reported to have said that the Islamic leadership is in Quraysh (i.e., his tribe) and that 12 "Imams" shall succeed him. Sunni and Shiite sects differ as to whom Muhammad was referring. Muhammad stated (authenticated by Sunnis and Shiites), that "Whoever does not know the Imam of his Lifetime (Hadith of the Current Imam: i.e., recognizes same) has died the death of Ignorance".[111][139] The idea of a prophet appointing a successor is found in the Old Testament where Joshua son of Nun is declared Moses’ successor or manager of his affairs after his death.[citation needed]

  • Before conception, the preceding the Imam is sent through a heavenly syrup which he drinks.
  • The Imam is born pure and circumcised. (93:5)
  • The Imam's mother experiences light and noises before the birth of the Imam.[citation needed]

Shias believe that just as Moses appointed Aaron as his successor on Bani-Israel, (Hadith of position), in accordance with God's order, Muhammad, the final prophet, appointed Ali ibn Abi Talib to be the leader of the believers.[citation needed]

The Shi'a Twelver denomination of Islam consider it to be the highest level of responsibility given by God to a human.[citation needed]

List of the Twelve Imams

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  1. Ali ibn Abi Talib
  2. Hasan ibn Ali
  3. Husayn ibn Ali
  4. Ali ibn Husayn
  5. Muhammad al-Baqir
  6. Jafar al-Sadiq
  7. Musa al-Kadhim
  8. Ali al-Rida
  9. Muhammad al-Jawad
  10. Ali al-Hadi
  11. Hasan al-Askari
  12. Muhammad al-Mahdi

See also

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Notes

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Footnotes

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  1. ^ a b Britannica 2007.
  2. ^ Tabatabaei 1975, p. 10.
  3. ^ Momen 1985, p. 173.
  4. ^ a b Martin 2004.
  5. ^ Lalani 2000, p. 20; Gleave 2004, p. 350.
  6. ^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 98; Gleave 2004.
  7. ^ Gleave 2004; Mavani 2013, p. 6; Lalani 2000, p. 20; Momen 1985, p. 147.
  8. ^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 2; Amir-Moezzi & Jambet 2018, p. 66; Mavani 2013, p. 4.
  9. ^ a b Zaman 2004, p. 349.
  10. ^ Sachedina 1988, p. 62; Modarressi 1993, p. 6.
  11. ^ Yücesoy 2013, p. 249.
  12. ^ a b Amir-Moezzi 2005.
  13. ^ Sachedina 1988, p. 90; Jafri 1979, p. 291.
  14. ^ Ayoub 1984, p. 155.
  15. ^ Sachedina 1988, p. 90; Jafri 1979, p. 290.
  16. ^ Crone 2005, p. 110; Momen 1985, p. 147.
  17. ^ Crone 2005, pp. 110–111; Sachedina 1988, p. 62; Gleave 2004, p. 350.
  18. ^ Amir-Moezzi 2005; Mavani 2013, p. 7; Nasr 1972, p. 160.
  19. ^ Amir-Moezzi & Jambet 2018, p. 66.
  20. ^ Tabatabaei 1975, p. 186; Amir-Moezzi & Jambet 2018, p. 66.
  21. ^ Yücesoy 2013, p. 247; Jafri 1979, p. 291.
  22. ^ Corbin 2006, p. 43; Amir-Moezzi & Jambet 2018, p. 72; Momen 1985, p. 157.
  23. ^ Momen 1985, p. 157; Amir-Moezzi 1994, p. 29.
  24. ^ Haider 2014, p. 34; Mavani 2013, p. 40.
  25. ^ Haider 2014, p. 34; Amir-Moezzi & Jambet 2018, p. 73.
  26. ^ Jafri 1979, pp. 291, 294; Mavani 2013, pp. 4, 11.
  27. ^ a b Nasr 1972, p. 162.
  28. ^ Nasr 1972, p. 162; Jafri 1979, p. 291; Momen 1985, pp. 150, 159; Lalani 2000, p. 65.
  29. ^ Nasr 1972, p. 163; Mavani 2013, p. 51.
  30. ^ Mavani 2013, pp. 51, 55; Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 2; Momen 1985, pp. 148, 157.
  31. ^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 103; Donaldson 1933, p. 339.
  32. ^ Modarressi 1993, pp. 21, 42–50; Crone 2005, p. 112.
  33. ^ Momen 1985, p. 159; Yücesoy 2013, p. 248.
  34. ^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 98; Madelung 2012; Dakake.
  35. ^ a b c Momen 1985, p. 159.
  36. ^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 102.
  37. ^ Yücesoy 2013, p. 248; Donaldson 1933, pp. 107–108.
  38. ^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, pp. 98, 103; Haider 2014, pp. 25, 29, 42–43.
  39. ^ Gleave 2004, p. 351.
  40. ^ Tabatabaei 1975, pp. 184–185; Haider 2014, pp. 25–26, 43.
  41. ^ a b c Mavani 2013, p. 11.
  42. ^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 98; Madelung 2012; Tabatabaei 1975, p. 185; Momen 1985, p. 148.
  43. ^ Madelung 2012; Momen 1985, p. 154; Jafri 1979, p. 295.
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References

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