For most of its history, China was organized into various dynastic states under the rule of hereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by Yu the Great c. 2070 BC,[1] and ending with the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912, Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.[a][b] Besides those established by the dominant Han ethnic group or its spiritual Huaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.[7]
Dividing Chinese history into dynastic epochs is a convenient and conventional method of periodization.[8] Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period.[9] For example, porcelain made during the Ming dynasty may be referred to as "Ming porcelain".[10]
The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the Zhou dynasty, ruling for a total length of about 790 years, albeit it is divided into the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou in Chinese historiography.[11] The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[12][13][14][15][16][c]
The term "Tiāncháo" (天朝; "Celestial Dynasty" or "Heavenly Dynasty") was frequently employed as a self-reference by Chinese dynasties.[20][21] As a form of respect and subordination, Chinese tributary states referred to these dynasties as "Tiāncháo Shàngguó" (天朝上國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State") or "Tiāncháo Dàguó" (天朝大國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Great State").
Terminology
editThe Chinese character 朝 (cháo) originally meant "morning" or "today". Subsequently, its scope was extended to refer to the regime of the incumbent ruler. Terms commonly used when discussing historical Chinese dynasties include:
History
editStart of dynastic rule
editAs the founder of China's first orthodox dynasty, the Xia dynasty, Yu the Great is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China.[23][a] In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed absolute power and private ownership of the realm, even though in practice their actual power was dependent on numerous factors.[24][e] By tradition, the Chinese throne was inherited exclusively by members of the male line, but there were numerous cases whereby the consort kins came to possess de facto power at the expense of the monarchs.[28][f] This concept, known as jiā tiānxià (家天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family"), was in contrast to the pre-Xia notion of gōng tiānxià (公天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the public") whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary and based on the abdication system.[24][30]
There may also be a predynastic period before a regime managed to overthrow the existing dynasty which led to the official establishment of the new dynasty. For example, the state of Zhou that existed during the Shang dynasty, before its conquest of the Shang which led to the establishment of the Zhou dynasty, is referred to as the Predynastic Zhou[31] or Proto-Zhou.[32] Similarly, the state of Qin that existed during the Zhou dynasty before its wars of unification and the establishment of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC is also referred to as the Predynastic Qin[33][34] or Proto-Qin.[35]
Dynastic transition
editThe rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule.[36] This method of explanation has come to be known as the dynastic cycle.[36][37][38]
Cases of dynastic transition (改朝換代; gǎi cháo huàn dài) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation.[39] The supersession of the Liao dynasty by the Jin dynasty was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of China proper under the Yuan dynasty; on the other hand, the transition from the Eastern Han to the Cao Wei, as well as from the Southern Qi to the Liang dynasty, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes, usurpers would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—akin to the abdication system of throne succession—as a means to legitimize their rule.[40]
One might incorrectly infer from viewing historical timelines that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime.[41] For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in possessing the Mandate of Heaven. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing through renaming the Later Jin established in AD 1616, while the Ming imperial family would rule the Southern Ming until AD 1662.[42][43] The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683.[44] Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the Ming–Qing transition, most notably the Shun and the Xi dynasties proclaimed by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong respectively.[45][46][47] This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper.
Similarly, during the earlier Sui–Tang transition, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling Sui dynasty weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (魏; by Li Mi), Qin (秦; by Xue Ju), Qi (齊; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (許; by Yuwen Huaji), Liang (梁; by Shen Faxing), Liang (梁; by Liang Shidu), Xia (夏; by Dou Jiande), Zheng (鄭; by Wang Shichong), Chu (楚; by Zhu Can), Chu (楚; by Lin Shihong), Wu (吳; by Li Zitong), Yan (燕; by Gao Kaidao), and Song (宋; by Fu Gongshi). The Tang dynasty that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper.[48]
Frequently, remnants and descendants of previous dynasties were either purged or granted noble titles in accordance with the "two crownings, three respects" system. The latter served as a means for the reigning dynasty to claim legitimate succession from earlier dynasties. For example, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei was accorded the title "Prince of Zhongshan" by the Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi following the latter's deposition of the former.[49] Similarly, Chai Yong, a nephew of the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was conferred the title "Duke of Chongyi" by the Emperor Renzong of Song; other descendants of the Later Zhou ruling house came to inherit the noble title thereafter.[50]
According to Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would compose the history of the preceding dynasty, culminating in the Twenty-Four Histories.[51] This tradition was maintained even after the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the Republic of China. However, the attempt by the Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the political division of China into the People's Republic of China on mainland China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.[52]
End of dynastic rule
editDynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the Qing dynasty following the success of the Xinhai Revolution.[53][54] While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy.
During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (孔令貽), the Duke of Yansheng and a 76th-generation descendant of Confucius, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by Liang Qichao.[55] Meanwhile, gentry in Anhui and Hebei supported a restoration of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (朱煜勳), the Marquis of Extended Grace.[56] Both suggestions were ultimately rejected.
The Empire of China (AD 1915–1916) proclaimed by Yuan Shikai sparked the National Protection War, resulting in the premature collapse of the regime 101 days later.[57] The Manchu Restoration (AD 1917) was an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the Qing dynasty, lasting merely 11 days.[58] Similarly, the Manchukuo (AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the Empire of Japan during World War II with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime.[59] Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia.[53]
Political legitimacy
editChina was politically divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties effectively functioned as separate states with their own court and political institutions. Political division existed during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern dynasties, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, among others.
Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around political legitimacy, which was derived from the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven.[60] Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of Hua–Yi distinction. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of Chinese culture and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as "legitimate" or "orthodox" (正統; zhèngtǒng) are termed cháo (朝; "dynasty"); "illegitimate" or "unorthodox" regimes are referred to as guó (國; usually translated as either "state" or "kingdom"[g]), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature.[61]
Such legitimacy disputes existed during the following periods:
- Three Kingdoms[62]
- The Cao Wei, the Shu Han, and the Eastern Wu considered themselves legitimate while simultaneously denounced the rivaling claims of others.
- The Emperor Xian of Han abdicated in favor of the Emperor Wen of Cao Wei; hence, the Cao Wei directly succeeded the Eastern Han in orthodox historiography.
- The Western Jin accepted the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty of the Three Kingdoms period and claimed succession from it.
- The Tang dynasty viewed the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty during this period, whereas the Southern Song scholar Zhu Xi proposed treating the Shu Han as legitimate.[63][64]
- Eastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms[65]
- The Eastern Jin viewed itself as a continuation of the Western Jin, and thus legitimate.
- Several of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as the Han-Zhao, the Later Zhao, and the Former Qin also claimed legitimacy.
- Northern and Southern dynasties[66]
- All dynasties during this period saw themselves as the legitimate representative of China; the Northern dynasties referred to their southern counterparts as "dǎoyí" (島夷; "island dwelling barbarians"), while the Southern dynasties called their northern neighbors "suǒlǔ" (索虜; "barbarians with braids").[67][68]
- Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms[69]
- Having directly succeeded the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang considered itself to be a legitimate dynasty.[69]
- The Later Tang regarded itself as the restorer of the earlier Tang dynasty and rejected the legitimacy of its predecessor, the Later Liang.[69]
- The Later Jin succeeded the Later Tang and accepted it as a legitimate regime.[69]
- The Southern Tang was, for a period of time, considered the legitimate dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.[69]
- Since the Song dynasty, Chinese historiography has generally considered the Five Dynasties, as opposed to the contemporary Ten Kingdoms, to be legitimate.[69][70]
- Liao dynasty, Song dynasty, and Jin dynasty[71]
- Following the conquest of the Later Jin, the Liao dynasty claimed legitimacy and succession from it[72]
- Both the Northern Song and Southern Song considered themselves to be the legitimate Chinese dynasty.
- The Jin dynasty challenged the Song's claim of legitimacy.
- The succeeding Yuan dynasty recognized all three in addition to the Western Liao as legitimate Chinese dynasties, culminating in the composition of the History of Liao, the History of Song, and the History of Jin.[73][74][75]
- Ming dynasty and Northern Yuan[76]
- The Ming dynasty recognized the preceding Yuan dynasty as a legitimate Chinese dynasty, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Yuan, thus considering the Northern Yuan as illegitimate.
- Northern Yuan rulers maintained the dynastic name "Great Yuan" and claimed traditional Han-style titles continuously until AD 1388 or AD 1402; Han-style titles were restored on several occasions thereafter for brief periods, notably during the reigns of Taisun Khan, Choros Esen, and Dayan Khan.[77]
- The historian Rashipunsug argued that the Northern Yuan had succeeded the legitimacy from the Yuan dynasty; the Qing dynasty, which later defeated and annexed the Northern Yuan, inherited this legitimacy, thus rendering the Ming illegitimate.[78]
- Qing dynasty and Southern Ming[79]
- The Qing dynasty recognized the preceding Ming dynasty as legitimate, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Ming, thus refuting the claimed legitimacy of the Southern Ming.
- The Southern Ming continued to claim legitimacy until its eventual defeat by the Qing.
- The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan denounced the Qing dynasty as illegitimate.
- The Joseon dynasty of Korea and the Later Lê dynasty of Vietnam had at various times considered the Southern Ming, instead of the Qing dynasty, as legitimate.[80][81]
- The Tokugawa shogunate of Japan did not accept the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty and instead saw itself as the rightful representative of Huá (華; "China"); this narrative served as the basis of Japanese texts such as Chūchō Jijitsu and Kai Hentai.[82][83][84]
Traditionally, periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which prior dynasties could and should be considered orthodox, given that it was politically imperative for a dynasty to present itself as being linked in an unbroken lineage of moral and political authority back to ancient times. However, the Northern Song statesman Ouyang Xiu propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved.[85] From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the Later Zhou. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods.[85]
Traditionally, as most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time.[70] Most historical sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows:[70]
These historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People's Republic of China based in Beijing and the Republic of China based in Taipei. Both regimes formally adhere to the One-China principle and claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the whole of China.[86]
Agnatic lineages
editThere were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with patrilineal relations, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given distinct retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes having occurred to their rule would necessitate nomenclatural distinction in academia, despite these ruling clans having shared common ancestral origins.
Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded.
The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians:
- Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou
- The Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou were ruled by the House of Ji; they are collectively known as the Zhou dynasty[11][87]
- The founder of the Eastern Zhou, the King Ping of Zhou, was a son of the last Western Zhou ruler, the King You of Zhou
- Western Han, Eastern Han, Shu Han, and Liu Song
- The Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Shu Han, and the Liu Song were ruled by the House of Liu; the first two of which are collectively known as the Han dynasty[88]
- The first emperor of the Eastern Han, the Emperor Guangwu of Han, was a ninth-generation descendant of the Western Han founder, the Emperor Gao of Han; he was also a seventh-generation descendant of the sixth Western Han monarch, the Emperor Jing of Han
- The founder of the Shu Han, the Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han, was also descended from the Emperor Jing of Han
- The Book of Song states that the first Liu Song ruler, the Emperor Wu of Liu Song, was a male-line descendant of a younger brother of the Emperor Gao of Han, the Prince Yuan of Chu
- Western Jin and Eastern Jin
- The Western Jin and the Eastern Jin were ruled by the House of Sima; they are collectively known as the Jin dynasty[89]
- The Eastern Jin founder, the Emperor Yuan of Jin, was a great-grandson of the Emperor Xuan of Jin; he was also a grandson of the Prince Wu of Langya and a son of the Prince Gong of Langya
- Han-Zhao and Hu Xia
- The Han-Zhao and the Hu Xia were ruled by the House of Luandi (later renamed the House of Liu and the House of Helian respectively)
- The Han-Zhao founder, the Emperor Guangwen of Han-Zhao, and the Hu Xia founder, the Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia, were descended from Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei respectively; according to the History of the Northern Dynasties, Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei were brothers
- Former Yan, Later Yan, and Southern Yan
- The Former Yan, the Later Yan, and the Southern Yan were ruled by the House of Murong
- The founder of the Later Yan, the Emperor Chengwu of Later Yan, was a son of the Former Yan founder, the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan
- The first monarch of the Southern Yan, the Emperor Xianwu of Southern Yan, was also a son of the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan
- Northern Wei, Southern Liang, Eastern Wei, and Western Wei
- The Northern Wei, the Southern Liang, the Eastern Wei, and the Western Wei were ruled by the House of Tuoba (later renamed the House of Yuan and the House of Tufa respectively)
- The Northern Wei founder, the Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei, and the Southern Liang founder, the Prince Wu of Southern Liang, were respectively descended from the sons of the Emperor Shengwu of Northern Wei, the Emperor Shenyuan of Northern Wei and Tufa Pigu[90]
- The only ruler of the Eastern Wei, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei, was a great-grandson of the seventh emperor of the Northern Wei, the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei
- The Western Wei founder, the Emperor Wen of Western Wei, was a grandson of the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei
- Southern Qi and Liang dynasty
- The Southern Qi and the Liang dynasty were ruled by the House of Xiao
- The founder of the Liang dynasty, the Emperor Wu of Liang, was a son of the Emperor Wen of Liang who was a distant cousin of the Southern Qi founder, the Emperor Gao of Southern Qi
- Western Liang and Tang dynasty
- The Western Liang and the Tang dynasty were ruled by the House of Li
- The founder of the Tang dynasty, the Emperor Gaozu of Tang, was a seventh-generation descendant of the Western Liang founder, the Prince Wuzhao of Western Liang
- Later Han and Northern Han
- The Later Han and the Northern Han were ruled by the House of Liu
- The first ruler of the Northern Han, the Emperor Shizu of Northern Han, was a younger brother of the Later Han founder, the Emperor Gaozu of Later Han
- Liao dynasty and Western Liao
- The Liao dynasty and the Western Liao were ruled by the House of Yelü
- The Western Liao founder, the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao, was an eighth-generation descendant of the first emperor of the Liao dynasty, the Emperor Taizu of Liao
- Northern Song and Southern Song
- The Northern Song and the Southern Song were ruled by the House of Zhao; they are collectively known as the Song dynasty[91]
- The first ruler of the Southern Song, the Emperor Gaozong of Song, was a son of the eighth Northern Song monarch, the Emperor Huizong of Song; he was also a younger brother of the last Northern Song emperor, the Emperor Qinzong of Song
- Yuan dynasty and Northern Yuan
- The Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan were ruled by the House of Borjigin
- The Emperor Huizong of Yuan was both the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and the first ruler of the Northern Yuan
- Ming dynasty and Southern Ming
- The Ming dynasty and the Southern Ming were ruled by the House of Zhu
- The Southern Ming founder, the Hongguang Emperor, was a grandson of the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty, the Wanli Emperor
- Later Jin and Qing dynasty
- The Later Jin and the Qing dynasty were ruled by the House of Aisin Gioro
- The Emperor Taizong of Qing was both the last Later Jin khan and the first emperor of the Qing dynasty
Classification
editCentral Plain dynasties
editThe Central Plain is a vast area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. "Central Plain dynasties" (中原王朝; Zhōngyuán wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China that had their capital cities situated within the Central Plain.[92] This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins.[92]
Unified dynasties
edit"Unified dynasties" (大一統王朝; dàyītǒng wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. "China proper" is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term "China". Imperial dynasties that had attained the unification of China proper may be known as the "Chinese Empire" or the "Empire of China" (中華帝國; Zhōnghuá Dìguó).[93][94][h]
The concept of "great unity" or "grand unification" (大一統; dàyītǒng) was first mentioned in the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals that was supposedly authored by the Qi scholar Gongyang Gao.[95][96][97] Other prominent figures like Confucius and Mencius also elaborated on this concept in their respective works.[98][99]
Historians typically consider the following dynasties to have unified China proper: the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Xin dynasty, the Eastern Han, the Western Jin, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Wu Zhou, the Northern Song, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty.[100][101] The status of the Northern Song as a unified dynasty is disputed among historians as the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun were partially administered by the contemporaneous Liao dynasty while the Western Xia exercised partial control over Hetao; the Northern Song, in this sense, did not truly achieve the unification of China proper.[100][102]
Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties
editAccording to the historian and sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper could be classified into two types, depending on the means by which the ruling ethnic groups had entered China proper.[103]
"Infiltration dynasties" or "dynasties of infiltration" (滲透王朝; shèntòu wángcháo) refer to Chinese dynasties founded by non-Han ethnicities that tended towards accepting Han culture and assimilating into the Han-dominant society.[103] For instance, the Han-Zhao and the Northern Wei, established by the Xiongnu and Xianbei ethnicities respectively, are considered infiltration dynasties of China.[103]
"Conquest dynasties" or "dynasties of conquest" (征服王朝; zhēngfú wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China established by non-Han peoples that tended towards resisting Han culture and preserving the identities of the ruling ethnicities.[103][104] For example, the Liao dynasty and the Yuan dynasty, ruled by the Khitan and Mongol peoples respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China.[103]
These terms remain sources of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective.[105]
Naming convention
editOfficial nomenclature
editIt was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the guóhào (國號; "name of the state"), upon the establishment of a dynasty.[106][107] During the rule of a dynasty, its guóhào functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes.
The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one of the following sources:
- The name of the ruling tribe or tribal confederation[108][109]
- e.g., the Western Xia dynasty took its name from its ruling class, the Xia tribal confederation[108]
- The noble title held by the dynastic founder prior to the founding of the dynasty[108][109]
- e.g., the Emperor Wu of Chen adopted the dynastic name "Chen" from his pre-imperial title "Prince of Chen" upon the establishment of the Chen dynasty[110]
- The name of a historical state that occupied the same geographical location as the new dynasty[109][111]
- e.g., the Former Yan was officially named "Yan" based on the ancient State of Yan located in the same region[111]
- The name of a previous dynasty from which the new dynasty claimed descent or succession from, even if such familial link was questionable[109]
- e.g., the Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou officially proclaimed the Later Zhou with the official title "Zhou" as he claimed ancestry from Guo Shu, a royal of the Zhou dynasty[112]
- A term with auspicious or other significant connotations[108][109]
- e.g., the Yuan dynasty was officially the "Great Yuan", a name derived from a clause in the Classic of Changes, "dà zāi Qián Yuán" (大哉乾元; "Great is the Heavenly and Primal")[113]
There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as Southern Han initially used the name "Yue", only to be renamed to "Han" subsequently.[114]
The official title of several dynasties bore the character "dà" (大; "great"). In Yongzhuang Xiaopin by the Ming historian Zhu Guozhen, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty.[115][116] However, several sources like the History of Liao and the History of Jin compiled by the Yuan historian Toqto'a revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the Liao and the Jin also contained the character "dà".[117][118] It was also common for officials, subjects, or tributary states of a particular dynasty to include the term "dà" (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it.[116] For instance, The Chronicles of Japan referred to the Tang dynasty as "Dai Tō" (大唐; "Great Tang") despite its dynastic name being simply "Tang".
While all dynasties of China sought to associate their respective realm with Zhōngguó (中國; "Central State"; usually translated as "Middle Kingdom" or "China" in English texts) and various other names of China, none of these regimes officially used such names as their dynastic title.[119][120] Although the Qing dynasty explicitly identified their state with and employed "Zhōngguó"—and its Manchu equivalent "Dulimbai Gurun" (ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ)—in official capacity in numerous international treaties beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk dated AD 1689, its dynastic name had remained the "Great Qing".[121][122] "Zhōngguó", which has become nearly synonymous with "China" in modern times, is a concept with geographical, political, and cultural connotations.[123]
The adoption of guóhào, as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the Sinosphere. Notably, rulers of Vietnam and Korea also declared guóhào for their respective realm.
Retroactive nomenclature
editIn Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties directly by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their official name, are used. For instance, the Sui dynasty is known as such because its formal name was "Sui". Likewise, the Jin dynasty was officially the "Great Jin".
When more than one dynasty shared the same Chinese character(s) as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes.[8][41][124] Frequently used prefixes include:
- Cardinal direction
- "Northern" (北; běi): e.g., Northern Qi, Northern Yuan
- "Southern" (南; nán): e.g., Southern Yan, Southern Tang
- "Eastern" (東; dōng): e.g., Eastern Jin, Eastern Wei
- "Western" (西; xī): e.g., Western Liang, Western Liao
- Sequence
- "Former"[i] (前; qián): e.g., Former Qin, Former Shu
- "Later"[j] (後; hòu): e.g., Later Zhao, Later Han
- Surname of the ruling family
- Other types of prefixes
A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the Western Han is also known as the "Former Han", and the Yang Wu is also called the "Southern Wu".[132][133]
Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the Song dynasty is divided into the Northern Song and the Southern Song, with the Jingkang Incident as the dividing line; the original "Song" founded by the Emperor Taizu of Song was therefore differentiated from the "Song" restored under the Emperor Gaozong of Song.[134] In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a nomenclatural distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the Western Qin, the Southern Liang, and the Tang dynasty; the first two were interrupted by the Later Qin, while the continuity of the latter was broken by the Wu Zhou.[135][136][137]
In Chinese sources, the term "dynasty" (朝; cháo) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word "dynasty" is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the Northern Zhou is also sometimes referred to as the "Northern Zhou dynasty".[138]
Often, scholars would refer to a specific Chinese dynasty by attaching the word "China" after the dynastic name. For instance, "Tang China" refers to the Chinese state under the rule of the Tang dynasty and the corresponding historical era.[139]
Territorial extent
editWhile the earliest orthodox Chinese dynasties were established along the Yellow River and the Yangtze in China proper, numerous Chinese dynasties later expanded beyond the region to encompass other territorial domains.[140][141][142][143][144][145][146][147][148][149][150][151][152]
At various points in time, Chinese dynasties exercised control over China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong),[140][141][142] Taiwan,[143] Manchuria (both Inner Manchuria and Outer Manchuria),[144][145] Sakhalin,[146][147] Mongolia (both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia),[145][148] Vietnam,[149][153] Tibet,[144][145] Xinjiang,[150] as well as parts of Central Asia,[145][146] the Korean Peninsula,[151] Afghanistan,[152][154] and Siberia.[145]
Territorially, the largest orthodox Chinese dynasty was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[12][13][14][15][16][c] This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan realm: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the Arctic coast, with its western boundary with the Golden Horde in Siberia delimited by the Ob and the Irtysh.[155][156][157] In contrast, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined.
Apart from exerting direct control over the Chinese realm, various dynasties of China also maintained hegemony over other states and tribes through the Chinese tributary system.[158] The Chinese tributary system first emerged during the Western Han and lasted until the 19th century AD when the Sinocentric order broke down.[159][160]
The modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China are inherited from the lands once held by the Qing dynasty at the time of its collapse.[16][161][162][163][164]
List of major Chinese dynasties
editThis list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. This list is neither comprehensive nor representative of Chinese history as a whole.
Dynasty | Ruling house | Period of rule | Rulers | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Name[k] (English[l] / Chinese[m] / Hanyu Pinyin / Wade–Giles / Bopomofo) |
Surname (English[l] / Chinese[m]) |
Ethnicity[n] | Status[o] | Year | Term | Founder[p] | Last monarch | List / Family tree | |
Semi-legendary | |||||||||
Xia dynasty 夏朝 Xià Cháo Hsia4 Ch῾ao2 ㄒㄧㄚˋ ㄔㄠˊ |
Si[q][r][s] 姒 |
Huaxia[r][s] | Royal | 2070–1600 BC[171][t][u] | 470 years[u] | Yu of Xia | Jie of Xia | (list) (tree) | |
Ancient China | |||||||||
Shang dynasty 商朝 Shāng Cháo Shang1 Ch῾ao2 ㄕㄤ ㄔㄠˊ |
Zi 子 |
Huaxia | Royal | 1600–1046 BC[174][t][v] | 554 years[v] | Tang of Shang | Zhou of Shang | (list) (tree) | |
Western Zhou[w] 西周 Xī Zhōu Hsi1 Chou1 ㄒㄧ ㄓㄡ |
Ji 姬 |
Huaxia | Royal | 1046–771 BC[176][t][x] | 275 years[x] | Wu of Zhou | You of Zhou | (list) (tree) | |
Eastern Zhou[w] 東周 Dōng Zhōu Tung1 Chou1 ㄉㄨㄥ ㄓㄡ |
Ji 姬 |
Huaxia | Royal | 770–256 BC[176] | 514 years | Ping of Zhou | Nan of Zhou | (list) (tree) | |
Early Imperial China[y] | |||||||||
Qin dynasty 秦朝 Qín Cháo Ch῾in2 Ch῾ao2 ㄑㄧㄣˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Ying[z] 嬴 |
Huaxia | Imperial (221–207 BC) Royal (207 BC) |
221–207 BC[178] | 14 years | Qin Shi Huang | Ying Ziying | (list) (tree) | |
Western Han[aa] 西漢 Xī Hàn Hsi1 Han4 ㄒㄧ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Han | Imperial | 202 BC–AD 9[179][ab] | 211 years[ab] | Gao of Han | Liu Ying[ac] | (list) (tree) | |
Xin dynasty 新朝 Xīn Cháo Hsin1 Ch῾ao2 ㄒㄧㄣ ㄔㄠˊ |
Wang 王 |
Han | Imperial | AD 9–23[182] | 14 years | Wang Mang | (list) (tree) | ||
Eastern Han[aa] 東漢 Dōng Hàn Tung1 Han4 ㄉㄨㄥ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Han | Imperial | AD 25–220[183] | 195 years | Guangwu of Han | Xian of Han | (list) (tree) | |
Three Kingdoms 三國 Sān Guó San1 Kuo2 ㄙㄢ ㄍㄨㄛˊ |
AD 220–280[184] | 60 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Cao Wei 曹魏 Cáo Wèi Ts῾ao2 Wei4 ㄘㄠˊ ㄨㄟˋ |
Cao 曹 |
Han | Imperial | AD 220–266[185] | 46 years | Wen of Cao Wei | Yuan of Cao Wei | (list) (tree) | |
Shu Han 蜀漢 Shǔ Hàn Shu3 Han4 ㄕㄨˇ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Han | Imperial | AD 221–263[186] | 42 years | Zhaolie of Shu Han | Huai of Shu Han | (list) (tree) | |
Eastern Wu 東吳 Dōng Wú Tung1 Wu2 ㄉㄨㄥ ㄨˊ |
Sun 孫 |
Han | Royal (AD 222–229) Imperial (AD 229–280) |
AD 222–280[187] | 58 years | Da of Eastern Wu | Sun Hao | (list) (tree) | |
Western Jin[ad][ae] 西晉 Xī Jìn Hsi1 Chin4 ㄒㄧ ㄐㄧㄣˋ |
Sima 司馬 |
Han | Imperial | AD 266–316[188] | 50 years | Wu of Jin | Min of Jin | (list) (tree) | |
Eastern Jin[ad][ae] 東晉 Dōng Jìn Tung1 Chin4 ㄉㄨㄥ ㄐㄧㄣˋ |
Sima 司馬 |
Han | Imperial | AD 317–420[189] | 103 years | Yuan of Jin | Gong of Jin | (list) (tree) | |
Sixteen Kingdoms[af] 十六國 Shíliù Guó Shih2-liu4 Kuo2 ㄕˊ ㄌㄧㄡˋ ㄍㄨㄛˊ |
AD 304–439[191] | 135 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Han-Zhao 漢趙 Hàn Zhào Han4 Chao4 ㄏㄢˋ ㄓㄠˋ |
Liu[ag][ah] 劉 |
Xiongnu | Royal (AD 304–308) Imperial (AD 308–329) |
AD 304–329[195] | 25 years | Guangwen of Han-Zhao | Liu Yao | (list) (tree) | |
Cheng-Han 成漢 Chéng Hàn Ch῾eng2 Han4 ㄔㄥˊ ㄏㄢˋ |
Li 李 |
Di | Princely (AD 304–306) Imperial (AD 306–347) |
AD 304–347[196][ai] | 43 years[ai] | Wu of Cheng-Han[ai] | Li Shi | (list) (tree) | |
Later Zhao 後趙 Hòu Zhào Hou4 Chao4 ㄏㄡˋ ㄓㄠˋ |
Shi 石 |
Jie | Royal (AD 319–330) Imperial (AD 330–351) Princely (AD 351) |
AD 319–351[198] | 32 years | Ming of Later Zhao | Shi Zhi | (list) (tree) | |
Former Liang 前涼 Qián Liáng Ch῾ien2 Liang2 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Zhang 張 |
Han | Princely (AD 320–354, AD 355–363) Imperial (AD 354–355) Ducal (AD 363–376) |
AD 320–376[199] | 56 years | Cheng of Former Liang | Dao of Former Liang | (list) (tree) | |
Former Yan 前燕 Qián Yān Ch῾ien2 Yen1 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄧㄢ |
Murong 慕容 |
Xianbei | Princely (AD 337–353) Imperial (AD 353–370) |
AD 337–370[200] | 33 years | Wenming of Former Yan | You of Former Yan | (list) (tree) | |
Former Qin 前秦 Qián Qín Ch῾ien2 Ch῾in2 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄑㄧㄣˊ |
Fu[aj] 苻 |
Di | Imperial | AD 351–394[200][ak] | 43 years[ak] | Jingming of Former Qin[ak] | Fu Chong | (list) (tree) | |
Later Yan 後燕 Hòu Yān Hou4 Yen1 ㄏㄡˋ ㄧㄢ |
Murong[al][am] 慕容 |
Xianbei[am] | Princely (AD 384–386) Imperial (AD 386–409) |
AD 384–409[205][an] | 25 years[an] | Chengwu of Later Yan | Zhaowen of Later Yan Huiyi of Yan[ao] |
(list) (tree) | |
Later Qin 後秦 Hòu Qín Hou4 Ch῾in2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄑㄧㄣˊ |
Yao 姚 |
Qiang | Royal (AD 384–386) Imperial (AD 386–417) |
AD 384–417[206] | 33 years | Wuzhao of Later Qin | Yao Hong | (list) (tree) | |
Western Qin 西秦 Xī Qín Hsi1 Ch῾in2 ㄒㄧ ㄑㄧㄣˊ |
Qifu 乞伏 |
Xianbei | Princely | AD 385–400, AD 409–431[207] | 37 years[ap] | Xuanlie of Western Qin | Qifu Mumo | (list) (tree) | |
Later Liang[aq] 後涼 Hòu Liáng Hou4 Liang2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Lü 呂 |
Di | Ducal (AD 386–389) Princely (AD 389–396) Imperial (AD 396–403) |
AD 386–403[208] | 17 years | Yiwu of Later Liang | Lü Long | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Liang 南涼 Nán Liáng Nan2 Liang2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Tufa[ar] 禿髮 |
Xianbei | Princely | AD 397–404, AD 408–414[209] | 13 years[as] | Wu of Southern Liang | Jing of Southern Liang | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Liang 北涼 Běi Liáng Pei3 Liang2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Juqu[at] 沮渠 |
Lushuihu[at] | Ducal (AD 397–399, AD 401–412) Princely (AD 399–401, AD 412–439) |
AD 397–439[211] | 42 years | Duan Ye | Ai of Northern Liang | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Yan 南燕 Nán Yān Nan2 Yen1 ㄋㄢˊ ㄧㄢ |
Murong 慕容 |
Xianbei | Princely (AD 398–400) Imperial (AD 400–410) |
AD 398–410[212] | 12 years | Xianwu of Southern Yan | Murong Chao | (list) (tree) | |
Western Liang 西涼 Xī Liáng Hsi1 Liang2 ㄒㄧ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Li 李 |
Han | Ducal | AD 400–421[213] | 21 years | Wuzhao of Western Liang | Li Xun | (list) (tree) | |
Hu Xia 胡夏 Hú Xià Hu2 Hsia4 ㄏㄨˊ ㄒㄧㄚˋ |
Helian[au] 赫連 |
Xiongnu | Imperial | AD 407–431[216] | 24 years | Wulie of Hu Xia | Helian Ding | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Yan 北燕 Běi Yān Pei3 Yen1 ㄅㄟˇ ㄧㄢ |
Feng[av] 馮 |
Han[av] | Imperial | AD 407–436[217][aw] | 29 years[aw] | Huiyi of Yan[ao] Wencheng of Northern Yan |
Zhaocheng of Northern Yan | (list) (tree) | |
Northern dynasties 北朝 Běi Cháo Pei3 Ch῾ao2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄔㄠˊ |
AD 386–581[218] | 195 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Northern Wei 北魏 Běi Wèi Pei3 Wei4 ㄅㄟˇ ㄨㄟˋ |
Tuoba[ax] 拓跋 |
Xianbei | Princely (AD 386–399) Imperial (AD 399–535) |
AD 386–535[220] | 149 years | Daowu of Northern Wei | Xiaowu of Northern Wei | (list) (tree) | |
Eastern Wei 東魏 Dōng Wèi Tung1 Wei4 ㄉㄨㄥ ㄨㄟˋ |
Yuan[ay] 元 |
Xianbei | Imperial | AD 534–550[221] | 16 years | Xiaojing of Eastern Wei | (list) (tree) | ||
Western Wei 西魏 Xī Wèi Hsi1 Wei4 ㄒㄧ ㄨㄟˋ |
Yuan[az] 元 |
Xianbei | Imperial | AD 535–557[221] | 22 years | Wen of Western Wei | Gong of Western Wei | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Qi 北齊 Běi Qí Pei3 Ch῾i2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄑㄧˊ |
Gao 高 |
Han | Imperial | AD 550–577[221] | 27 years | Wenxuan of Northern Qi | Gao Heng | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Zhou 北周 Běi Zhōu Pei3 Chou1 ㄅㄟˇ ㄓㄡ |
Yuwen 宇文 |
Xianbei | Imperial | AD 557–581[221] | 24 years | Xiaomin of Northern Zhou | Jing of Northern Zhou | (list) (tree) | |
Southern dynasties 南朝 Nán Cháo Nan2 Ch῾ao2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
AD 420–589[223] | 169 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Liu Song 劉宋 Liú Sòng Liu2 Sung4 ㄌㄧㄡˊ ㄙㄨㄥˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Han | Imperial | AD 420–479[224] | 59 years | Wu of Liu Song | Shun of Liu Song | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Qi 南齊 Nán Qí Nan2 Ch῾i2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄑㄧˊ |
Xiao 蕭 |
Han | Imperial | AD 479–502[225] | 23 years | Gao of Southern Qi | He of Southern Qi | (list) (tree) | |
Liang dynasty 梁朝 Liáng Cháo Liang2 Ch῾ao2 ㄌㄧㄤˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Xiao 蕭 |
Han | Imperial | AD 502–557[226] | 55 years | Wu of Liang | Jing of Liang | (list) (tree) | |
Chen dynasty 陳朝 Chén Cháo Ch῾en2 Ch῾ao2 ㄔㄣˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Chen 陳 |
Han | Imperial | AD 557–589[227] | 32 years | Wu of Chen | Chen Shubao | (list) (tree) | |
Middle Imperial China[y] | |||||||||
Sui dynasty 隋朝 Suí Cháo Sui2 Ch῾ao2 ㄙㄨㄟˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Yang[ba] 楊 |
Han | Imperial | AD 581–619[229] | 38 years | Wen of Sui | Gong of Sui | (list) (tree) | |
Tang dynasty 唐朝 Táng Cháo T῾ang2 Ch῾ao2 ㄊㄤˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Li[bb] 李 |
Han | Imperial | AD 618–690, AD 705–907[231] | 274 years[bc] | Gaozu of Tang | Ai of Tang | (list) (tree) | |
Wu Zhou 武周 Wǔ Zhōu Wu3 Chou1 ㄨˇ ㄓㄡ |
Wu 武 |
Han | Imperial | AD 690–705[232] | 15 years | Shengshen of Wu Zhou | (list) (tree) | ||
Five Dynasties 五代 Wǔ Dài Wu3 Tai4 ㄨˇ ㄉㄞˋ |
AD 907–960[233] | 53 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Later Liang[aq] 後梁 Hòu Liáng Hou4 Liang2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Zhu 朱 |
Han | Imperial | AD 907–923[234] | 16 years | Taizu of Later Liang | Zhu Youzhen | (list) (tree) | |
Later Tang 後唐 Hòu Táng Hou4 T῾ang2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄊㄤˊ |
Li[bd][be][bf] 李 |
Shatuo[bf] | Imperial | AD 923–937[238] | 14 years | Zhuangzong of Later Tang | Li Congke | (list) (tree) | |
Later Jin[bg] 後晉 Hòu Jìn Hou4 Chin4 ㄏㄡˋ ㄐㄧㄣˋ |
Shi 石 |
Shatuo | Imperial | AD 936–947[239] | 11 years | Gaozu of Later Jin | Chu of Later Jin | (list) (tree) | |
Later Han 後漢 Hòu Hàn Hou4 Han4 ㄏㄡˋ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Shatuo | Imperial | AD 947–951[239] | 4 years | Gaozu of Later Han | Yin of Later Han | (list) (tree) | |
Later Zhou 後周 Hòu Zhōu Hou4 Chou1 ㄏㄡˋ ㄓㄡ |
Guo[bh] 郭 |
Han | Imperial | AD 951–960[239] | 9 years | Taizu of Later Zhou | Gong of Later Zhou | (list) (tree) | |
Ten Kingdoms 十國 Shí Guó Shih2 Kuo2 ㄕˊ ㄍㄨㄛˊ |
AD 907–979[241] | 72 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Former Shu 前蜀 Qián Shǔ Ch῾ien2 Shu3 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄕㄨˇ |
Wang 王 |
Han | Imperial | AD 907–925[242] | 18 years | Gaozu of Former Shu | Wang Yan | (list) (tree) | |
Yang Wu 楊吳 Yáng Wú Yang2 Wu2 ㄧㄤˊ ㄨˊ |
Yang 楊 |
Han | Princely (AD 907–919) Royal (AD 919–927) Imperial (AD 927–937) |
AD 907–937[243][bi] | 30 years[bi] | Liezu of Yang Wu[bi] | Rui of Yang Wu | (list) (tree) | |
Ma Chu 馬楚 Mǎ Chǔ Ma3 Ch῾u3 ㄇㄚˇ ㄔㄨˇ |
Ma 馬 |
Han | Royal (AD 907–930) Princely (AD 930–951) |
AD 907–951[245] | 44 years | Wumu of Ma Chu | Ma Xichong | (list) (tree) | |
Wuyue 吳越 Wúyuè Wu2-yüeh4 ㄨˊ ㄩㄝˋ |
Qian 錢 |
Han | Royal (AD 907–932, AD 937–978) Princely (AD 934–937) |
AD 907–978[245] | 71 years | Taizu of Wuyue | Zhongyi of Qin | (list) (tree) | |
Min 閩 Mǐn Min3 ㄇㄧㄣˇ |
Wang[bj] 王 |
Han | Princely (AD 909–933, AD 944–945) Imperial (AD 933–944, AD 945) |
AD 909–945[245] | 36 years | Taizu of Min | Tiande | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Han 南漢 Nán Hàn Nan2 Han4 ㄋㄢˊ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Han | Imperial | AD 917–971[245] | 54 years | Gaozu of Southern Han | Liu Chang | (list) (tree) | |
Jingnan 荊南 Jīngnán Ching1-nan2 ㄐㄧㄥ ㄋㄢˊ |
Gao[bk] 高 |
Han | Princely | AD 924–963[245] | 39 years | Wuxin of Chu | Gao Jichong | (list) (tree) | |
Later Shu 後蜀 Hòu Shǔ Hou4 Shu3 ㄏㄡˋ ㄕㄨˇ |
Meng 孟 |
Han | Imperial | AD 934–965[245] | 31 years | Gaozu of Later Shu | Gongxiao of Chu | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Tang 南唐 Nán Táng Nan2 T῾ang2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄊㄤˊ |
Li[bl] 李 |
Han | Imperial (AD 937–958) Royal (AD 958–976) |
AD 937–976[249] | 37 years | Liezu of Southern Tang | Li Yu | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Han 北漢 Běi Hàn Pei3 Han4 ㄅㄟˇ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu[bm][bn] 劉 |
Shatuo[bm][bn] | Imperial | AD 951–979[252] | 28 years | Shizu of Northern Han | Yingwu of Northern Han | (list) (tree) | |
Liao dynasty 遼朝 Liáo Cháo Liao2 Ch῾ao2 ㄌㄧㄠˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Yelü 耶律 (𘬜𘭪𘲚𘱪) |
Khitan | Imperial | AD 916–1125[253][bo] | 209 years[bo] | Taizu of Liao | Tianzuo of Liao | (list) (tree) | |
Western Liao 西遼 Xī Liáo Hsi1 Liao2 ㄒㄧ ㄌㄧㄠˊ |
Yelü[bp] 耶律 (𘬜𘭪𘲚𘱪) |
Khitan[bp] | Royal (AD 1124–1132) Imperial (AD 1132–1218) |
AD 1124–1218[257][bq] | 94 years[bq] | Dezong of Western Liao | Kuchlug | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Song[br] 北宋 Běi Sòng Pei3 Sung4 ㄅㄟˇ ㄙㄨㄥˋ |
Zhao 趙 |
Han | Imperial | AD 960–1127[259] | 167 years | Taizu of Song | Qinzong of Song | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Song[br] 南宋 Nán Sòng Nan2 Sung4 ㄋㄢˊ ㄙㄨㄥˋ |
Zhao 趙 |
Han | Imperial | AD 1127–1279[260] | 152 years | Gaozong of Song | Zhao Bing | (list) (tree) | |
Western Xia 西夏 Xī Xià Hsi1 Hsia4 ㄒㄧ ㄒㄧㄚˋ |
Weiming[bs] 嵬名 𗼨𗆟 |
Tangut | Imperial | AD 1038–1227[262] | 189 years | Jingzong of Western Xia | Li Xian | (list) (tree) | |
Jin dynasty[ae] 金朝 Jīn Cháo Chin1 Ch῾ao2 ㄐㄧㄣ ㄔㄠˊ |
Wanyan 完顏 |
Jurchen | Imperial | AD 1115–1234[263] | 119 years | Taizu of Jin | Wanyan Chenglin | (list) (tree) | |
Late Imperial China[y] | |||||||||
Yuan dynasty 元朝 Yuán Cháo Yüan2 Ch῾ao2 ㄩㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Borjigin[bt] 孛兒只斤 ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ |
Mongol | Imperial | AD 1271–1368[264][bu] | 97 years[bu] | Shizu of Yuan | Huizong of Yuan | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Yuan 北元 Běi Yuán Pei3 Yüan2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄩㄢˊ |
Borjigin[bv][bw] 孛兒只斤 ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ |
Mongol[bw] | Imperial | AD 1368–1635[268][bx] | 267 years[bx] | Huizong of Yuan | Borjigin Erke Khongghor[bx] | (list) (tree) | |
Ming dynasty 明朝 Míng Cháo Ming2 Ch῾ao2 ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Zhu 朱 |
Han | Imperial | AD 1368–1644[272] | 276 years | Hongwu | Chongzhen | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Ming 南明 Nán Míng Nan2 Ming2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄇㄧㄥˊ |
Zhu 朱 |
Han | Imperial | AD 1644–1662[273][by] | 18 years[by] | Hongguang | Yongli[by] | (list) (tree) | |
Later Jin[bg] 後金 Hòu Jīn Hou4 Chin1 ㄏㄡˋ ㄐㄧㄣ |
Aisin Gioro 愛新覺羅 ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ |
Jurchen[bz] | Royal | AD 1616–1636[277] | 20 years | Tianming | Taizong of Qing | (list) (tree) | |
Qing dynasty 清朝 Qīng Cháo Ch῾ing1 Ch῾ao2 ㄑㄧㄥ ㄔㄠˊ |
Aisin Gioro 愛新覺羅 ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ |
Manchu | Imperial | AD 1636–1912[278][ca][cb] | 276 years | Taizong of Qing | Xuantong | (list) (tree) |
This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. Many other dynastic regimes existed within or overlapped with the geographical boundaries specified in the definition of "China" in the study of Chinese historical geography.[cc] These were:[292]
- Dynastic regimes that existed within the fengjian system: e.g., State of Deng, State of Huo, State of Chu, State of Yiqu
- Dynastic regimes that existed within the jimi system: e.g., Xuanque Prefecture (玄闕州), Zhulong Prefecture (燭龍州), Maolian Guard (毛憐衛), Jianzhou Left Guard (建州左衛)
- Dynastic regimes that existed within the tusi system: e.g., Chiefdom of Bozhou, Chiefdom of Shuidong, Chiefdom of Yongning, Chiefdom of Tsanlha
- Localized dynastic regimes: e.g., Nanyue, Tuyuhun, Dali Kingdom, Kingdom of Tungning
- Short-lived dynastic regimes: e.g., Zhai Wei, Northern Liao, Chen Han, Shun dynasty
- Regional dynastic regimes that ruled an area historically or currently associated with "China": e.g., Rouran Khaganate, Tibetan Empire, Bohai, Kara-Khanid Khanate
Dynasties that belonged to the following categories are excluded from this list:
- Dynasties outside of "China" with full or partial Chinese ancestry: e.g., Early Lý dynasty of Vietnam, Thonburi dynasty of Siam[293][294][295][296]
- Dynasties that ruled Chinese tributary states outside of "China": e.g., Đinh dynasty of Vietnam, First Shō dynasty of the Ryukyu Islands[297][298]
- Dynasties outside of "China" which identified themselves as "China": e.g., Joseon dynasty of Korea, Nguyễn dynasty of Vietnam[299][300][301][302]
- Dynasties that ruled Sinicized states outside of "China": e.g., Baekje dynasty of Korea, Later Lê dynasty of Vietnam[303][304]
Timelines
editTimeline of major historical periods
edit
|
Timeline of major regimes
edit![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/2gnlgndfdq8ek2a6i55pultuwm535sh.png)
See also
edit- 1911 Revolution
- Administration of territory in dynastic China
- Ancient Chinese states
- Chinese expansionism
- Chinese historiography
- Chinese sovereign
- Conquest dynasty
- Debate on the Chineseness of Yuan and Qing dynasties
- Dragon Throne
- Dynastic cycle
- Eighteen Kingdoms
- Emperor at home, king abroad
- Emperor of China
- Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)
- Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)
- Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)
- Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)
- Family tree of Chinese monarchs (Warring States period)
- Fanzhen
- Fengjian
- Golden ages of China
- Historical capitals of China
- Jiedushi
- Jimi system
- List of Chinese monarchs
- List of Confucian states and dynasties
- List of Mongol states
- List of recipients of tribute from China
- List of tributary states of China
- List of Vietnamese dynasties
- Little China (ideology)
- Mandate of Heaven
- Monarchy of China
- Names of China
- Pax Sinica
- Sinosphere
- Six Dynasties
- Succession to the Chinese throne
- Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors
- Tianxia
- Timeline of Chinese history
- Tributary system of China
- Tusi
- Twenty-Four Histories
- Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project
- Zhonghua minzu
Notes
edit- ^ a b While the Xia dynasty is typically considered to be the first orthodox Chinese dynasty, numerous sources including the Book of Documents mention two other dynasties that preceded the Xia: the "Tang" (唐) and the "Yu" (虞) dynasties.[2][3][4][5] The former is sometimes called the "Ancient Tang" (古唐) to distinguish it from other dynasties named "Tang".[6] Should the historicity of these earlier dynasties be attested, Yu the Great would not have been the initiator of dynastic rule in China.
- ^ All attempts at restoring monarchical and dynastic rule in China following the Xinhai Revolution ended in failure. Hence, the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912 is typically regarded as the formal end of the Chinese monarchy.
- ^ a b As per contemporary historiographical norm, the "Yuan dynasty" in this article refers exclusively to the realm based in Dadu. However, the Han-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" (大元) as proclaimed by the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire Mongol Empire.[17][18][19] In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern-day scholars due to the de facto disintegration of the Mongol Empire.
- ^ While the character 王 (wáng) is translated as "king", this term is often more broadly applied to all dynasties, including those whose rulers held non-royal titles, such as "emperor".[22]
- ^ In AD 1906, the Qing dynasty initiated a series of reforms under the auspices of the Empress Xiaoqinxian to transition to a constitutional monarchy. On 27 August 1908, the Outline of the Constitution Compiled by Imperial Order was promulgated and served as a preliminary version of a full constitution originally intended to take effect 10 years later.[25] On 3 November 1911, as a response to the ongoing Xinhai Revolution, the Qing dynasty issued the Nineteen Major Articles of Good Faith on the Constitution which limited the power of the Qing emperor, marking the official transition to a constitutional monarchy.[26][27] The Qing dynasty, however, was overthrown on 12 February 1912.
- ^ A powerful consort kin, usually a male, could force the reigning monarch to abdicate in his favor, thereby prompting a change in dynasty. For example, Wang Mang of the Xin dynasty was a nephew of the Empress Xiaoyuan who in turn was the spouse of the Western Han ruler, the Emperor Yuan of Han.[29]
- ^ The term "kingdom" is potentially misleading as not all rulers held the title of king. For example, all sovereigns of the Cao Wei held the title huángdì (皇帝; "emperor") during their reign despite the realm being listed as one of the "Three Kingdoms". Similarly, monarchs of the Western Qin, one of the "Sixteen Kingdoms", bore the title wáng (王; usually translated as "prince" in English writings).
- ^ As proposed by scholars such as Fu Sinian and Ray Huang, there were three major Chinese empires historically. The "First Chinese Empire" (中華第一帝國) included the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Cao Wei, the Western Jin, the Eastern Jin, the Liu Song, the Southern Qi, the Liang dynasty, and the Chen dynasty. The "Second Chinese Empire" (中華第二帝國) encompassed the Northern Wei, the Western Wei, the Northern Zhou, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang, the Later Tang, the Later Jin, the Later Han, the Later Zhou, the Northern Song, and the Southern Song. The "Third Chinese Empire" (中華第三帝國) consisted of the Liao dynasty, the Jin dynasty, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty. Accordingly, the terms "Chinese Empire" and "Empire of China" need not necessarily refer to imperial dynasties that had unified China proper.
- ^ "Anterior" is employed in some sources in place of "Former".[125][126]
- ^ "Latter" or "Posterior" is employed in some sources in place of "Later".[127][128][129][130][131]
- ^ The English and Chinese names stated are historiographical denominations. These should not be confused with the guóhào officially proclaimed by each dynasty. A dynasty may be known by more than one historiographical name.
- ^ a b The English names shown are based on the Hanyu Pinyin renditions, the most common form of Mandarin romanization currently in adoption. Some scholarly works utilize the Wade–Giles system, which may differ drastically in the spelling of certain words. For instance, the Qing dynasty is rendered as "Ch῾ing dynasty" in Wade–Giles.[165]
- ^ a b The Chinese characters shown are in Traditional Chinese. Some characters may have simplified versions that are currently used in mainland China. For instance, the characters for the Eastern Han are written as "東漢" in Traditional Chinese and "东汉" in Simplified Chinese.
- ^ While Chinese historiography tends to treat dynasties as being of specific ethnic stocks, there were some monarchs who had mixed heritage.[166] For instance, the Jiaqing Emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty was of mixed Manchu and Han descent, having derived his Han ancestry from his mother, the Empress Xiaoyichun.[167]
- ^ The status of a dynasty was dependent upon the supreme title bore by its monarch at any given time. For instance, since all monarchs of the Chen dynasty held the title of emperor during their reign, the Chen dynasty was of imperial status.
- ^ The monarchs listed were the de facto founders of dynasties. However, it was common for Chinese monarchs to posthumously honor earlier members of the family as monarchs. For instance, while the Later Jin was officially established by the Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin, four earlier members of the ruling house were posthumously accorded imperial titles, the most senior of which was Shi Jing who was conferred the temple name "Jingzu" (靖祖) and the posthumous name "Emperor Xiao'an" (孝安皇帝).
- ^ In addition to the ancestral name Si (姒), the ruling house of the Xia dynasty also bore the lineage name Xiahou (夏后).[168]
- ^ a b Youqiong Yi, surnamed Youqiong (有窮), was of Dongyi descent.[169] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
- ^ a b Yun Zhuo, surnamed Yun (妘), was of Dongyi descent.[170] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
- ^ a b c The dates given for the Xia dynasty, the Shang dynasty, and the Western Zhou prior to the start of the Gonghe Regency in 841 BC are derived from the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project.
- ^ a b The rule of the Xia dynasty was traditionally dated 2205–1766 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin.[172][173] Accordingly, the Xia dynasty lasted 439 years.
- ^ a b The rule of the Shang dynasty was traditionally dated 1766–1122 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin.[172][175] Accordingly, the Shang dynasty lasted 644 years.
- ^ a b The Western Zhou (西周) and the Eastern Zhou (東周) are collectively known as the Zhou dynasty (周朝; Zhōu Cháo; Chou1 Ch῾ao2; ㄓㄡ ㄔㄠˊ).[11][87]
- ^ a b The rule of the Western Zhou was traditionally dated 1122–771 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin.[172][175] Accordingly, the Western Zhou lasted 351 years.
- ^ a b c The terms "Chinese Empire" and "Empire of China" usually refer to the Chinese state under the rule of various imperial dynasties, particularly those that had unified China proper.[93][94]
- ^ In addition to the ancestral name Ying (嬴), the ruling house of the Qin dynasty also bore the lineage name Zhao (趙).[177]
- ^ a b The Western Han (西漢) and the Eastern Han (東漢) are collectively known as the Han dynasty (漢朝; Hàn Cháo; Han4 Ch῾ao2; ㄏㄢˋ ㄔㄠˊ).[88]
- ^ a b Some historians consider 206 BC, the year in which the Emperor Gao of Han was proclaimed "King of Han", to be the start of the Western Han.[180] Accordingly, the Western Han lasted 215 years.
- ^ Liu Ying was not officially enthroned and maintained the title huáng tàizǐ (皇太子; "crown prince") during the regency of Wang Mang.[181] The last Western Han monarch who was officially enthroned was the Emperor Ping of Han.
- ^ a b The Western Jin (西晉) and the Eastern Jin (東晉) are collectively known as the Jin dynasty (晉朝; Jìn Cháo; Chin4 Ch῾ao2; ㄐㄧㄣˋ ㄔㄠˊ).[89]
- ^ a b c The names of the Jin dynasty (晉朝) of the Sima clan and the Jin dynasty (金朝) of the Wanyan clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Jin".
- ^ a b The Sixteen Kingdoms are also referred to as the "Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians" (五胡十六國; Wǔ Hú Shíliù Guó), although not all dynasties counted among the 16 were ruled by the "Five Barbarians".[190]
- ^ The ruling house of the Han-Zhao initially bore the surname Luandi (攣鞮).[192][193] Liu (劉) was subsequently adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Han-Zhao.
- ^ As Jin Zhun, surnamed Jin (靳), was not a member of the Liu (劉) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[194]
- ^ a b c Some historians consider AD 303, the year in which the Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han declared the era name "Jianchu" (建初), to be the start of the Cheng-Han.[197] Accordingly, the Cheng-Han was founded by the Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han and lasted 44 years.
- ^ The ruling house of the Former Qin initially bore the surname Pu (蒲).[201] The Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin subsequently adopted Fu (苻) as the surname in AD 349 prior to the establishment of the Former Qin.[201]
- ^ a b c Some historians consider AD 350, the year in which the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin was proclaimed "Prince of Three Qins", to be the start of the Former Qin.[202] Accordingly, the Former Qin was founded by the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin and lasted 44 years.
- ^ As Lan Han, surnamed Lan (蘭), was not a member of the Murong (慕容) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[203]
- ^ a b The Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan.[204] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
- ^ a b Depending on the status of the Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the Later Yan ended in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 23 years or 25 years.
- ^ a b The Emperor Huiyi of Yan could either be the last Later Yan monarch or the founder of the Northern Yan depending on the historian's characterization.[204]
- ^ The Western Qin was interrupted by the Later Qin between AD 400 and AD 409. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 400 and the realm restored in AD 409. The Prince Wuyuan of Western Qin was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.
- ^ a b The names of the Later Liang (後涼) of the Lü clan and the Later Liang (後梁) of the Zhu clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Liang".
- ^ The ruling house of the Southern Liang initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).[90] Tufa Pigu subsequently adopted Tufa (禿髮) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Southern Liang.[90]
- ^ The Southern Liang was interrupted by the Later Qin between AD 404 and AD 408. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 404 and the realm restored in AD 408. The Prince Jing of Southern Liang was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.
- ^ a b Duan Ye, surnamed Duan (段), was of Han descent.[210] The enthronement of the Prince Wuxuan of Northern Liang was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
- ^ The ruling house of the Hu Xia initially bore the surname Luandi (攣鞮).[214] Liu (劉) was adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Hu Xia.[215] The Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia subsequently adopted Helian (赫連) as the surname in AD 413 after the establishment of the Hu Xia.[215]
- ^ a b The Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan.[204] The enthronement of the Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
- ^ a b Depending on the status of the Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the Northern Yan was established in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 29 years or 27 years.
- ^ The ruling house of the Northern Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).[219] The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 after the establishment of the Northern Wei.[219]
- ^ The ruling house of the Eastern Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).[219] The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 prior to the establishment of the Eastern Wei.[219]
- ^ The ruling house of the Western Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).[219] The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 prior to the establishment of the Western Wei, only for the Emperor Gong of Western Wei to restore the surname Tuoba in AD 554 after the establishment of the Western Wei.[219][222]
- ^ The ruling house of the Sui dynasty initially bore the surname Yang (楊). The Western Wei later bestowed the surname Puliuru (普六茹) upon the family.[228] The Emperor Wen of Sui subsequently restored Yang as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Sui dynasty.
- ^ The ruling house of the Tang dynasty initially bore the surname Li (李). The Western Wei later bestowed the surname Daye (大野) upon the family.[230] Li was subsequently restored as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Tang dynasty.
- ^ The Tang dynasty was interrupted by the Wu Zhou between AD 690 and AD 705. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 690 and the realm restored in AD 705. The Emperor Ruizong of Tang was the last ruler before the interregnum; the Emperor Zhongzong of Tang was the first ruler after the interregnum.
- ^ The ruling house of the Later Tang initially bore the surname Zhuye (朱邪).[235] The Emperor Xianzu of Later Tang subsequently adopted Li (李) as the surname in AD 869 prior to the establishment of the Later Tang.[235]
- ^ The Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang, originally without surname, was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan.[236] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
- ^ a b Li Congke was of Han descent. Originally surnamed Wang (王), he was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan.[237] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
- ^ a b The names of the Later Jin (後晉) of the Shi clan and the Later Jin (後金) of the Aisin Gioro clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Jin".
- ^ The Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, originally surnamed Chai (柴), was an adopted member of the Guo (郭) clan.[240] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
- ^ a b c Some historians consider AD 902, the year in which the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu was proclaimed "Prince of Wu", to be the start of the Yang Wu.[244] Accordingly, the Yang Wu was founded by the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu and lasted 35 years.
- ^ As Zhu Wenjin, surnamed Zhu (朱), was not a member of the Wang (王) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[246]
- ^ The ruling house of the Jingnan initially bore the surname Gao (高). The Prince Wuxin of Chu subsequently adopted Zhu (朱) as the surname, only to restore the surname Gao prior to the establishment of the Jingnan.[247]
- ^ The ruling house of the Southern Tang initially bore the surname Li (李). The Emperor Liezu of Southern Tang subsequently adopted Xu (徐) as the surname, only to restore the surname Li in AD 939 after the establishment of the Southern Tang.[248]
- ^ a b Liu Ji'en was of Han descent. Originally surnamed Xue (薛), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan.[250] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
- ^ a b The Emperor Yingwu of Northern Han was of Han descent. Originally surnamed He (何), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan.[251] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
- ^ a b Some historians consider AD 907, the year in which the Emperor Taizu of Liao was proclaimed "Khagan of the Khitans", to be the start of the Liao dynasty.[254] Accordingly, the Liao dynasty lasted 218 years.
- ^ a b Kuchlug, originally without surname, was of Naiman descent. As he was not a member of the Yelü (耶律) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[255][256]
- ^ a b Some historians consider AD 1132, the year in which the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao was proclaimed "Gurkhan", to be the start of the Western Liao.[258] Accordingly, the Western Liao lasted 86 years.
- ^ a b The Northern Song (北宋) and the Southern Song (南宋) are collectively known as the Song dynasty (宋朝; Sòng Cháo; Sung4 Ch῾ao2; ㄙㄨㄥˋ ㄔㄠˊ).[91]
- ^ The ruling house of the Western Xia initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋). The Tang dynasty and the Song dynasty later bestowed the surnames Li (李) and Zhao (趙) upon the family respectively. The Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia subsequently adopted Weiming (嵬名) as the surname in AD 1032 prior to the establishment of the Western Xia.[261]
- ^ The ruling house of the Yuan dynasty initially bore the surname Kiyad (乞顏). Borjigin Munkhag and Kiyad-Borjigin Khabul respectively adopted Borjigin (孛兒只斤) and Kiyad-Borjigin (乞顏·孛兒只斤) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty. The Emperor Liezu of Yuan subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty.
- ^ a b Some historians consider AD 1260, the year in which the Emperor Shizu of Yuan was proclaimed "Khagan of the Great Mongol State" and declared the era name "Zhongtong" (中統), to be the start of the Yuan dynasty.[265] Accordingly, the Yuan dynasty lasted 108 years.
- ^ The ruling house of the Northern Yuan initially bore the surname Kiyad (乞顏). Borjigin Munkhag and Kiyad-Borjigin Khabul respectively adopted Borjigin (孛兒只斤) and Kiyad-Borjigin (乞顏·孛兒只斤) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan. The Emperor Liezu of Yuan subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan.
- ^ a b Choros Esen, surnamed Choros (綽羅斯), was of Oirat descent. As he was not a member of the Borjigin (孛兒只斤) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[266][267]
- ^ a b c Traditional Chinese historiography considers the Northern Yuan to have ended in either AD 1388 or AD 1402 when the dynastic name "Great Yuan" was abolished.[269][270] Accordingly, the Northern Yuan lasted either 20 years or 34 years, and its last ruler was either the Tianyuan Emperor or the Örüg Temür Khan. However, some historians regard the Mongol-ruled regime that existed from AD 1388 or AD 1402 up to AD 1635—referred to in the History of Ming as "Dada" (韃靼)—as a direct continuation of the Northern Yuan.[271]
- ^ a b c Some historians consider AD 1664, the year in which the reign of the Dingwu Emperor came to an end, to be the end of the Southern Ming.[274] Accordingly, the Southern Ming lasted 20 years and its last ruler was the Dingwu Emperor. However, the existence and identity of the Dingwu Emperor, supposedly reigned from AD 1646 to AD 1664, are disputed.
- ^ The Jurchen ethnic group was renamed "Manchu" in AD 1635 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing.[275][276]
- ^ The Articles of Favorable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor After His Abdication allowed the Xuantong Emperor to retain his imperial title and enjoy other privileges following his abdication, resulting in the existence of a titular court in the Forbidden City known as the "Remnant Court of the Abdicated Qing Imperial Family" (遜清皇室小朝廷) between AD 1912 and AD 1924.[279] Following the Beijing Coup, Feng Yuxiang revoked the privileges and abolished the titular court in AD 1924.[279]
- ^ The Qing dynasty was briefly restored between 1 July 1917 and 12 July 1917 when Zhang Xun reinstalled the Xuantong Emperor to the Chinese throne.[58] Due to the abortive nature of the event, it is usually excluded from Qing history.
- ^ As proposed by scholars such as Tan Qixiang, the geographical extent of "China" as defined in Chinese historical geography largely corresponds with the territories once ruled by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak between the AD 1750s and the AD 1840s, prior to the outbreak of the First Opium War.[280] At its height, the Qing dynasty exercised jurisdiction over an area larger than 13 million km2, encompassing:[281][282][283]
- Tannu Uriankhai in the north;[284]
- Stanovoy Range and Sakhalin in the northeast;[285][286][287]
- Taiwan and its adjacent islands in the southeast;[285][286]
- Hainan and the South China Sea Islands in the south;[285][286][287][288]
- Pamir Mountains in the west;[286][287][289]
- Lake Balkhash in the northwest.[285][286][287][289]
- ^ The dynastic regimes included in this timeline are the same as the list above.
References
editCitations
edit- ^ Xueqin, Li (2002-01-01). "The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project: Methodology and Results". Journal of East Asian Archaeology. 4 (1): 332. doi:10.1163/156852302322454585. ISSN 1387-6813.
- ^ Nadeau, Randall (2012). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. p. 31. ISBN 9781444361971.
- ^ Yeo, Khiok-Khng (2008). Musing with Confucius and Paul: Toward a Chinese Christian Theology. p. 24. ISBN 9780227903308.
- ^ Chao, Yuan-ling (2009). Medicine and Society in Late Imperial China: A Study of Physicians in Suzhou, 1600–1850. p. 73. ISBN 9781433103810.
- ^ Wang, Shumin (2002). "夏、商、周之前还有个虞朝". Hebei Academic Journal. 22 (1): 146–147. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
- ^ "远古时期的"古唐朝"?比夏朝还早1600年,如被证实历史或将改写". Retrieved 21 June 2022.
- ^ Skutsch, Carl (2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. p. 287. ISBN 9781135193881.
- ^ a b Keay, John (2010). China: A History. ISBN 9780007372089.
- ^ Wang, Yeyang; Zhao, Qingyun (2016). 当代中国近代史理论研究. ISBN 9787516188231.
- ^ Atwell, William (1978). "Ming China and the Emerging World Economy". In Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John; Mote, Frederick (eds.). The Cambridge History of China. pp. 394–395. ISBN 9780521243339.
- ^ a b c Sadow, Lauren; Peeters, Bert; Mullan, Kerry (2019). Studies in Ethnopragmatics, Cultural Semantics, and Intercultural Communication: Minimal English (and Beyond). p. 100. ISBN 9789813299795.
- ^ a b Bauch, Martin; Schenk, Gerrit (2019). The Crisis of the 14th Century: Teleconnections between Environmental and Societal Change?. p. 153. ISBN 9783110660784.
- ^ a b Ruan, Jiening; Zhang, Jie; Leung, Cynthia (2015). Chinese Language Education in the United States. p. 9. ISBN 9783319213088.
- ^ a b Wei, Chao-hsin (1988). The General Themes of the Ocean Culture World. p. 17.
- ^ a b Adler, Philip; Pouwels, Randall (2011). World Civilizations: Volume I: To 1700. p. 373. ISBN 9781133171065.
- ^ a b c Rowe, William (2010). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. p. 1. ISBN 9780674054554.
- ^ Robinson, David (2019). In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia. p. 50. ISBN 9781108482448.
- ^ Robinson, David (2009). Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols. p. 293. ISBN 9780674036086.
- ^ Brook, Timothy; Walt van Praag, Michael van; Boltjes, Miek (2018). Sacred Mandates: Asian International Relations since Chinggis Khan. p. 45. ISBN 9780226562933.
- ^ Nevius, John (1869). China and the Chinese. p. 22. ISBN 9788120606906.
- ^ Wang, Hongsheng (2007). 历史的瀑布与峡谷:中华文明的文化结构和现代转型. p. 139. ISBN 9787300081830.
- ^ a b "陆大鹏谈翻译:历史上的"王朝"与"皇朝"". The Paper (in Chinese). Retrieved 4 August 2020.
- ^ Ebrey, Patricia; Liu, Kwang-Ching (2010). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. p. 10. ISBN 9780521124331.
- ^ a b Chan, Joseph (2013). Confucian Perfectionism: A Political Philosophy for Modern Times. p. 213. ISBN 9781400848690.
- ^ Koenig, Lion; Chaudhuri, Bidisha (2017). Politics of the 'Other' in India and China: Western Concepts in Non-Western Contexts. p. 157. ISBN 9781317530558.
- ^ Gao, Quanxi; Zhang, Wei; Tian, Feilong (2015). The Road to the Rule of Law in Modern China. p. 135. ISBN 9783662456378.
- ^ To, Michael (2017). China's Quest for a Modern Constitutional Polity: from dynastic empires to modern republics. p. 54.
- ^ Whitaker, Donald; Shinn, Rinn-Sup (1972). Area Handbook for the People's Republic of China. p. 37.
- ^ Xiong, Deshan (2015). Social History Of China. p. 95. ISBN 9781938368264.
- ^ Qi, Zhixiang (2016). 中國現當代人學史:思想演變的時代特徵及其歷史軌跡. p. 21. ISBN 9789869244923.
- ^ Gina L. Barnes (2015). Archaeology of East Asia: The Rise of Civilization in China, Korea and Japan. Oxbow Books. p. 45. ISBN 9781785700712.
- ^ Lothar von Falkenhausen (2012). The Lloyd Cotsen Study Collection of Chinese Bronze Mirrors: Volume 2. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. p. 44. ISBN 9781950446445.
- ^ Gideon Shelach-Lavi (2015). The Archaeology of Early China. Cambridge University Press. p. 314. ISBN 9780521196895.
- ^ Zhixin Sun (2017). Age of Empires: Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 33. ISBN 9781588396174.
- ^ Lothar von Falkenhausen (2006). Chinese Society in the Age of Confucius (1000-250 BC). Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. p. 235. ISBN 9781938770456.
- ^ a b Perdue, Peter (2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. p. 6. ISBN 9780674042025.
- ^ Elleman, Bruce; Paine, Sarah (2019). Modern China: Continuity and Change, 1644 to the Present. p. 19. ISBN 9781538103876.
- ^ Zheng, Yongnian; Huang, Yanjie (2018). Market in State: The Political Economy of Domination in China. p. 83. ISBN 9781108473446.
- ^ "我国古代改朝换代的方式不外乎两种,哪种才是主流?". Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ Fan, Shuzhi (2007). 国史精讲. p. 99. ISBN 9787309055634.
- ^ a b Wilkinson, Endymion (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. p. 14. ISBN 9780674002494.
- ^ Perkins, Dorothy (2013). Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. p. 1. ISBN 9781135935627.
- ^ Di Cosmo, Nicola (2007). The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: "My Service in the Army", by Dzengseo. p. 1. ISBN 9781135789558.
- ^ Elman, Benjamin (2006). A Cultural History of Modern Science in China. p. 46. ISBN 9780674023062.
- ^ Tanner, Harold (2009). China: A History. p. 335. ISBN 978-0872209152.
- ^ Pines, Yuri (2012). The Everlasting Empire: The Political Culture of Ancient China and Its Imperial Legacy. p. 157. ISBN 978-0691134956.
- ^ Mote, Frederick (2003). Imperial China 900-1800. p. 798. ISBN 9780674012127.
- ^ Skaff, Jonathan (2012). Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800. p. 80. ISBN 9780199734139.
- ^ Gong, Yin (2006). 中国民族政策史. p. 253. ISBN 9787220071041.
- ^ Zhang, Cheng (2007). 禅让:中国历史上的一种权力游戏. p. 200. ISBN 9787801066961.
- ^ Stunkel, Kenneth (2012). Fifty Key Works of History and Historiography. p. 143. ISBN 9781136723667.
- ^ Horner, Charles (2010). Rising China and Its Postmodern Fate: Memories of Empire in a New Global Context. p. 59. ISBN 9780820335889.
- ^ a b Moody, Alys; Ross, Stephen (2020). Global Modernists on Modernism: An Anthology. p. 282. ISBN 9781474242349.
- ^ Grosse, Christine (2019). The Global Manager's Guide to Cultural Literacy. p. 71. ISBN 9781527533875.
- ^ Rošker, Jana; Suhadolnik, Nataša (2014). Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change. p. 74. ISBN 9781443867726.
- ^ Aldrich, M. A. (2008). The Search for a Vanishing Beijing: A Guide to China's Capital Through the Ages. p. 176. ISBN 9789622097773.
- ^ Schillinger, Nicholas (2016). The Body and Military Masculinity in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Art of Governing Soldiers. p. 176. ISBN 9781498531696.
- ^ a b Hao, Shiyuan (2019). China's Solution to Its Ethno-national Issues. p. 51. ISBN 9789813295193.
- ^ Wells, Anne (2009). The A to Z of World War II: The War Against Japan. p. 167. ISBN 9780810870260.
- ^ Wu, Bin (2019). Government Performance Management in China: Theory and Practice. pp. 44–45. ISBN 9789811382253.
- ^ "历史上的国和代到底有什么区别?". Archived from the original on 15 January 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ Besio, Kimberly (2012). Three Kingdoms and Chinese Culture. p. 64. ISBN 9780791480496.
- ^ Baaquie, Belal Ehsan; Wang, Qing-Hai (2018). "Chinese Dynasties and Modern China: Unification and Fragmentation". China and the World: Ancient and Modern Silk Road. 1 (1): 5. doi:10.1142/S2591729318500037.
- ^ Nosco, Peter (1997). Confucianism and Tokugawa Culture. p. 68. ISBN 9780824818654.
- ^ Holcombe, Charles (2017). A History of East Asia. pp. 62–63. ISBN 9781107118737.
- ^ Yang, Shao-yun (2019). The Way of the Barbarians: Redrawing Ethnic Boundaries in Tang and Song China. p. 63. ISBN 9780295746012.
- ^ Chen, Huaiyu (2007). The Revival of Buddhist Monasticism in Medieval China. p. 24. ISBN 9780820486246.
- ^ Wakeman, Frederic (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China, Volume 1. p. 446. ISBN 9780520048041.
- ^ a b c d e f Liu, Pujiang (2017). 正统与华夷:中国传统政治文化研究. ISBN 9787101125795.
- ^ a b c Lee, Thomas (2000). Education in Traditional China: A History. p. 238. ISBN 9004103635.
- ^ Ng, On Cho; Wang, Edward (2005). Mirroring the Past: The Writing And Use of History in Imperial China. p. 177. ISBN 9780824829131.
- ^ "宋和辽究竟哪个才是正统王朝?". Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ Brook, Walt van Praag & Boltjes (2018). p. 52.
- ^ Biran, Michal (2005). The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World. p. 93. ISBN 9780521842266.
- ^ "试论清人的辽金"正统观"——以辽宋金"三史分修""各与正统"问题讨论为中心". Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ Zhang, Feng (2015). Chinese Hegemony: Grand Strategy and International Institutions in East Asian History. p. 126. ISBN 9780804795043.
- ^ Okada, Hidehiro (2002). "Dayan Khan as a Yuan Emperor : The Political Legitimacy in 15th Century Mongolia" (PDF). Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. 81: 53. Retrieved 7 March 2022.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Brook, Walt van Praag & Boltjes (2018). p. 54.
- ^ Chan, Wing-ming (2000). East Asian History, Issues 19-20. p. 30.
- ^ Fang, Weigui (2019). Modern Notions of Civilization and Culture in China. p. 30. ISBN 9789811335587.
- ^ Baldanza, Kathlene (2016). Ming China and Vietnam. p. 206. ISBN 9781107124240.
- ^ Davis, Bret (2019). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Philosophy. p. 294. ISBN 9780199945726.
- ^ Ng, Wai-ming (2019). Imagining China in Tokugawa Japan: Legends, Classics, and Historical Terms. p. xvii. ISBN 9781438473086.
- ^ Zhang, Xiaoling (2014). 從現代到後現代的自我追尋:夏目漱石與村上春樹的比較研究. p. 224. ISBN 9789863263012.
- ^ a b Wu, Huaiqi (2018). An Historical Sketch of Chinese Historiography. p. 322. ISBN 9783662562536.
- ^ Hudson, Christopher (2014). The China Handbook. p. 59. ISBN 9781134269662.
- ^ a b Law, Eugene (2004). Best of China. p. 11. ISBN 9787508504292.
- ^ a b Li, Xiaobing (2012). China at War: An Encyclopedia. p. 485. ISBN 9781598844160.
- ^ a b Mao, Zengyin (2005). 三字经与中国民俗画. p. 90. ISBN 9787508507996.
- ^ a b c Wang, Yong (2018). 东亚文化环流十讲. p. 27. ISBN 9787313200105.
- ^ a b Wang, Shoufa (2002). 中国政治制度史. p. 80. ISBN 9787209030762.
- ^ a b Li, Xiaobing; Shan, Patrick (2015). Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation, and Resistance. p. 5. ISBN 9781498507295.
- ^ a b "Chinese Empire". Retrieved 9 January 2020.
- ^ a b "经常提到的波斯帝国,那你知道波斯第一、第二、第三帝国吗?". Retrieved 13 January 2020.
- ^ Feng, Tianyu; Yang, Hua (2000). 中国文化发展轨迹. p. 111. ISBN 9787208034600.
- ^ Jia, Bingqiang; Zhu, Xiaohong (2015). 图说治水与中华文明. ISBN 9787517031246.
- ^ Wang, Xilong (2009). 历史文化探研──兰州大学历史文化学院专门史论文集. ISBN 9787542114525.
- ^ Yang, Faxing (2015). 世界伟人传记丛书(上).
- ^ Gao, Qi (2018). 传统文化与治国理政. ISBN 9787101127669.
- ^ a b "中国历史上十个大一统王朝,其中四个国祚不过百年". Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ "我国历史上这两大王朝均是大一统王朝,却教科书上却极少被提及". Retrieved 24 January 2020.
- ^ Graff, David; Higham, Robin (2012). A Military History of China. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-0813140674.
- ^ a b c d e Zhang, Fan (2018). "Characteristics of the Yuan dynasty: Reflections on several issues from Mongol Yuan history". Chinese Studies in History. 51 (1): 52. doi:10.1080/00094633.2018.1466564. S2CID 165215790. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
- ^ van de Ven, Hans (2000). Warfare in Chinese History. p. 77. ISBN 9004117741.
- ^ Bulag, Uradyn (2010). Collaborative Nationalism: The Politics of Friendship on China's Mongolian Frontier. pp. 56–57. ISBN 9781442204331.
- ^ Wilkinson (2000). pp. 13–14.
- ^ Zhu, Fayuan; Wu, Qixing (2000). 中国文化ABC. ISBN 9787210045892.
- ^ a b c d "历代王朝国号的分类". Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ a b c d e "名不正则言不顺:中国各朝代名称、国号的由来". Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ "唐朝的皇帝姓李,为什么不叫李朝而叫唐朝?". Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ a b "先秦时期的诸侯国名,哪些最受后世的青睐?". Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ "后周皇帝列表及简介 后周太祖世宗恭帝简介 后周是怎么灭亡的". Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ Hung, Hing Ming (2016). From the Mongols to the Ming Dynasty: How a Begging Monk Became Emperor of China, Zhu Yuan Zhang. p. 13. ISBN 9781628941524.
- ^ "南越国与南汉国". Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ Hu, Axiang; Song, Yanmei (2008). 中国国号的故事. p. 171. ISBN 9787807135999.
- ^ a b "明朝为何定国号为"大明",绝大部分人只知道五个原因中的一个". Retrieved 6 January 2020.
- ^ "辽朝国号考释". Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2020.
- ^ Chan, Hok-lam (2003). 金宋史論叢. pp. 4–5. ISBN 9789629960971.
- ^ Fogel, Joshua (2015). The Cultural Dimensions of Sino-Japanese Relations: Essays on the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. p. 66. ISBN 9781317457671.
- ^ Xie, Xuanjun (2016). 士商工农──等级制度构建文明社会. p. 379. ISBN 9781329980136.
- ^ Wang, Yuanchong (2018). Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911. pp. 52–53. ISBN 9781501730511.
- ^ Wang, Fei-Ling (2017). The China Order: Centralia, World Empire, and the Nature of Chinese Power. p. 11. ISBN 9781438467504.
- ^ Kang, Jung In (2015). Western-Centrism and Contemporary Korean Political Thought. p. 71. ISBN 9780739180990.
- ^ "为何中国古代的一些朝代前要加上"东西南北",比如"西汉"呢?". Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ Christopher, James (1970). Conflict in the Far East. p. 5.
- ^ Deghati, Reza; Giès, Jacques; Feugère, Laure; Coutin, André (2002). Painted Buddhas of Xinjiang: Hidden Treasures from the Silk Road. p. 43. ISBN 9781588860279.
- ^ Chang, Chun-shu (2007). The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Frontier, immigration, and empire in Han China, 130 B.C.–A.D. 157. pp. 179–180. ISBN 9780472115341.
- ^ Swope, Kenneth (2014). The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44. p. 223. ISBN 9781134462094.
- ^ Dardess, John (2019). More Than the Great Wall: The Northern Frontier and Ming National Security, 1368–1644. p. 512. ISBN 9781538135112.
- ^ Wang, Guo'an (2007). A Handbook for 1,000 Basic Chinese Characters. p. 828. ISBN 9789629962838.
- ^ Zhao, Ziqiang (2001). 私家藏宝:粤桂港澳台私人藏品珍集. p. 7. ISBN 9787806740989.
- ^ Loewe, Michael (2006). The Government of the Qin and Han Empires: 221 BCE – 220 CE. p. vi. ISBN 9781603840576.
- ^ "五代十国时期的十国政权之一:南吴的发展史". Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ Chan, Chi Chuen; Li, William; Chiu, Amy (2019). The Psychology of Chinese Gambling: A Cultural and Historical Perspective. p. 21. ISBN 9789811334863.
- ^ "先秦、秦国、秦朝、前秦、后秦、西秦是什么关系?". Retrieved 4 August 2020.
- ^ Lü, Simian (2020). 两晋南北朝史(第一册). ISBN 9787999131410.
- ^ "汉分东西汉因为中间有新莽为什么唐朝中间有武周却不分东西唐". Retrieved 4 August 2020.
- ^ Yuan, Haiwang (2010). This is China: The First 5,000 Years. p. 40. ISBN 9781933782768.
- ^ Hammond, Kenneth; Beezley, William; DeBlasi, Anthony; MacLachlan, Colin (2002). The Human Tradition in Premodern China. p. 77. ISBN 9780842029599.
- ^ a b Brødsgaard, Kjeld (2008). Hainan – State, Society, and Business in a Chinese Province. p. 11. ISBN 9781134045471.
- ^ a b Wong, Koon-kwai (2009). Hong Kong, Macau and the Pearl River Delta: A Geographical Survey. pp. 241–242. ISBN 9789882004757.
- ^ a b Zhang, Wei Bin (2006). Hong Kong: The Pearl Made of British Mastery and Chinese Docile-diligence. p. 3. ISBN 9781594546006.
- ^ a b Hughes, Christopher (2013). Taiwan and Chinese Nationalism: National Identity and Status in International Society. p. 21. ISBN 9781134727551.
- ^ a b c Hsu, Cho-yun (2012). China: A New Cultural History. p. 421. ISBN 9780231528184.
- ^ a b c d e f Lockard, Craig (2020). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History. p. 260. ISBN 9780357365472.
- ^ a b c Gan, Chunsong (2019). A Concise Reader of Chinese Culture. p. 24. ISBN 9789811388675.
- ^ a b Westad, Odd (2012). Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750. p. 11. ISBN 9780465029365.
- ^ a b Sanders, Alan (2003). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. p. v. ISBN 9780810866010.
- ^ a b Paige, Jeffrey (1978). Agrarian Revolution. p. 278. ISBN 9780029235508.
- ^ a b Clarke, Michael (2011). Xinjiang and China's Rise in Central Asia - A History. p. 16. ISBN 9781136827068.
- ^ a b Kshetry, Gopal (2008). Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective. p. 25. ISBN 9781469102443.
- ^ a b Tanner (2009). p. 167.
- ^ Lockard (2020). p. 262.
- ^ Hsu (2012). p. 268.
- ^ D. K (2018). History of the World Map by Map. p. 133. ISBN 9780241379189.
- ^ Tan, Qixiang, ed. (1982). "元时期全图(一)". The Historical Atlas of China.
- ^ Tan, Qixiang, ed. (1982). "元时期全图(二)". The Historical Atlas of China.
- ^ Kavalski, Emilian (2014). Asian Thought on China's Changing International Relations. pp. 56–57. ISBN 9781137299338.
- ^ Rand, Christopher (2017). Military Thought in Early China. p. 142. ISBN 9781438465180.
- ^ Brown, Kerry (2018). China's 19th Party Congress: Start Of A New Era. p. 197. ISBN 9781786345936.
- ^ Tanner (2009). p. 419.
- ^ Esherick, Joseph; Kayali, Hasan; Van Young, Eric (2006). Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World. p. 245. ISBN 9780742578159.
- ^ Zhai, Zhiyong (2017). 憲法何以中國. p. 190. ISBN 9789629373214.
- ^ Gao, Quanxi (2016). 政治憲法與未來憲制. p. 273. ISBN 9789629372910.
- ^ "Qing dynasty". Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ "中国历史上的十大混血皇帝,有人居然有黑人血统". Retrieved 5 March 2020.
- ^ Zhu, Weizheng (2015). Rereading Modern Chinese History. p. 301. ISBN 9789004293311.
- ^ Li, Xueqin (2004). 中國古代文明與國家形成硏究. p. 358. ISBN 9789867938251.
- ^ Liu, Manli (2020). 一本書讀懂史記故事. ISBN 9789863923237.
- ^ Yao, Weijun; Song, Chuanyin (2017). 中国亡国帝王全传. ISBN 9787568033213.
- ^ Zheng, Wang (2012). Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations. p. 44. ISBN 9780231520164.
- ^ a b c Ivanhoe, Philip; Van Norden, Bryan (2005). Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. p. 385. ISBN 9781603844901.
- ^ Tan, Koon San (2014). Dynastic China: An Elementary History. p. 8. ISBN 9789839541885.
- ^ Westmoreland, Perry (2019). Life's Wonders. ISBN 9781644268346.
- ^ a b Tan (2014). p. 17.
- ^ a b Loh, Shen Yeow (2019). Descendants of the Bird Hunters of Old China. ISBN 9781543755633.
- ^ Wu, Dongping (2013). 名人取名的故事. ISBN 9787216072298.
- ^ Shaughnessy, Edward (2014). Unearthing the Changes: Recently Discovered Manuscripts of the Yi Jing (I Ching) and Related Texts. p. 19. ISBN 9780231533300.
- ^ Zhang, Qizhi (2015). An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. p. 92. ISBN 9783662464823.
- ^ Earnshaw, Graham (2004). China Economic Review's China Business Guide 2005. p. 30. ISBN 9781933782768.
- ^ Wang, Jiafan (1999). 中华古文明史辞典. p. 490. ISBN 9787805182773.
- ^ McLeod, Alexus (2016). Astronomy in the Ancient World: Early and Modern Views on Celestial Events. p. 85. ISBN 9783319236001.
- ^ Tse, Wicky (2018). The Collapse of China's Later Han Dynasty, 25-220 AD: The Northwest Borderlands and the Edge of Empire. ISBN 9781315532318.
- ^ Pei, Kuangyi (2018). Gale Researcher Guide for: The Three Kingdoms and the Jin. ISBN 9781535865692.
- ^ Dai, Meike; Wei, Weisen (2016). 幻化之龍:兩千年中國歷史變遷中的孔子. p. 122. ISBN 9789629966485.
- ^ Fu, Chonglan; Cao, Wenming (2019). Introduction to the Urban History of China. p. 123. ISBN 9789811382079.
- ^ Zhou, Jiarong (2017). 香港通史:遠古至清代. p. 41. ISBN 9789620441660.
- ^ Mai, Jinsheng (2017). 近代中國海防史新論. p. 254. ISBN 9789620440472.
- ^ Wang, Eugene (2005). Shaping the Lotus Sutra: Buddhist Visual Culture in Medieval China. p. 13. ISBN 9780295984629.
- ^ Gernet, Jacques (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. p. 186. ISBN 9780521497817.
- ^ Shen, Songying (2016). 闲读中国史. ISBN 9787210081692.
- ^ Zhou, Weizhou (2006). 汉赵国史. p. 2. ISBN 9787563359943.
- ^ Xu, Junyuan; Zhang, Zhanjun; Shi, Yuxin (1986). 贵姓何来. p. 65.
- ^ Zhang, Chengwang (2013). 一次讀完二十五史故事. p. 169. ISBN 9789865951610.
- ^ McMahon, Keith (2013). Women Shall Not Rule: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Han to Liao. p. 123. ISBN 9781442222908.
- ^ Fan, Ru; Pan, Xinghui (2010). 中外歷史大事年表. p. 213. ISBN 9789628931736.
- ^ Wong, Dorothy (2004). Chinese Steles: Pre-Buddhist and Buddhist Use of a Symbolic Form. ISBN 9780824827830.
- ^ Swartz, Wendy; Yang, Lu; Jessy, Choo (2014). Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook. p. 30. ISBN 9780231531009.
- ^ Whiteman, Stephen (2019). Where Dragon Veins Meet: The Kangxi Emperor and His Estate at Rehe. p. 225. ISBN 9780295745817.
- ^ a b Duthie, Torquil (2014). Man'yōshū and the Imperial Imagination in Early Japan. p. 27. ISBN 9789004264540.
- ^ a b Chen, Zaiming (2004). 人物評話:古今人物逍遙遊. p. 82. ISBN 9789573253327.
- ^ Silk, Jonathan (2013). Buddhism in China: Collected Papers of Erik Zürcher. p. 589. ISBN 9789004263291.
- ^ Liu, Xueyao (2005). 歷代胡族王朝之民族政策. p. 41. ISBN 9789867151018.
- ^ a b c Liu, Xueyao (2012). 鮮卑列國:大興安嶺傳奇. ISBN 9789628904327.
- ^ Steinhardt, Nancy (2014). Chinese Architecture in an Age of Turmoil, 200-600. p. 28. ISBN 9780824838232.
- ^ Xiao, Shiyou (2013). 後秦政治外交史簡論五篇. p. 69. ISBN 9789881278982.
- ^ Adamek, Piotr (2017). Good Son is Sad If He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values. p. 344. ISBN 9781351565219.
- ^ Zhao, Yonghong (2010). 河西走廊藏文化史要. ISBN 9787542117083.
- ^ Goodrich, Luther (2002). A Short History of the Chinese People. p. 85. ISBN 9780486424880.
- ^ Lü, Fu (2017). 历代兴衰演义. p. 154.
- ^ Qin, Dashu; Yuan, Jian (2013). 2011:古丝绸之路. p. 153. ISBN 9789813206076.
- ^ Wan, Guoding; Wan, Sinian; Chen, Mengjia (2018). 中国历史纪年表(精). ISBN 9787101133172.
- ^ Zhang, Qizhi; Wang, Zijin; Fang, Guanghua (2002). 秦汉魏晋南北朝史. p. 335. ISBN 9789571128702.
- ^ "匈奴嬌子的赫連大夏國". Retrieved 6 September 2020.
- ^ a b Kim, Hyun Jin (2015). The Huns. ISBN 9781317340911.
- ^ Hong, Yuan (2018). The Sinitic Civilization Book II: A Factual History Through the Lens of Archaeology, Bronzeware, Astronomy, Divination, Calendar and the Annals. ISBN 9781532058318.
- ^ Tian, Hengyu (2018). Infamous Chinese Emperors: Tales of Tyranny and Misrule. p. 180. ISBN 9789812299314.
- ^ Wang, Zhen'guo; Chen, Ping; Xie, Peiping (1999). History and Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine. p. 94. ISBN 9787030065674.
- ^ a b c d e f Xiong, Victor (2017). Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. p. 613. ISBN 9781442276161.
- ^ Fairbank, John; Goldman, Merle (2006). China: A New History. p. 73. ISBN 9780674018280.
- ^ a b c d Spring, Peter (2015). Great Walls and Linear Barriers. p. 211. ISBN 9781473854048.
- ^ Holcombe, Charles (2001). The Genesis of East Asia: 221 B.C.–A.D. 907. p. 140. ISBN 9780824824655.
- ^ Tan, Zhongchi (2013). 长沙通史(古代卷). ISBN 9787999009009.
- ^ Kroll, Paul (2014). Reading Medieval Chinese Poetry: Text, Context, and Culture. p. 36. ISBN 9789004282063.
- ^ Nadeau, Randall (2012). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. p. 147. ISBN 9781444361971.
- ^ Katz, Paul (1995). Demon Hordes and Burning Boats: The Cult of Marshal Wen in Late Imperial Chekiang. p. 79. ISBN 9781438408484.
- ^ Cai, Zong-qi (2007). How to Read Chinese Poetry: A Guided Anthology. p. 152. ISBN 9780231511889.
- ^ Knechtges, David; Chang, Taiping (2014). Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide. p. 1818. ISBN 9789004271852.
- ^ Lee, Mosol (2013). Ancient History of the Manchuria. p. 115. ISBN 9781483667676.
- ^ Luo, Xianglin (1996). 唐代文化史研究. p. 45. ISBN 9789570512540.
- ^ Adamek, Piotr (2017). A Good Son is Sad if He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values. p. 348. ISBN 9781351565219.
- ^ Su, Muzi (2006). 那些顛覆時代的女人.
- ^ Standen, Naomi (2007). Unbounded Loyalty: Frontier Crossings in Liao China. p. 1. ISBN 9780824829834.
- ^ Schaeffer, Kurtis; Kapstein, Matthew; Tuttle, Gray (2013). Sources of Tibetan Tradition. p. 338. ISBN 9780231509787.
- ^ a b Xu, Tiesheng (2017). 《百家姓》新解. ISBN 9787101125337.
- ^ Zang, Fengyu (2012). 中國歷史人物的讀心術. p. 154. ISBN 9789868825895.
- ^ Liang, De; Yang, Yang (1998). 皇权兴衰通鉴. p. 652. ISBN 9787538334289.
- ^ Liu, Lydia; Karl, Rebecca; Ko, Dorothy (2013). The Birth of Chinese Feminism: Essential Texts in Transnational Theory. p. 164. ISBN 9780231533263.
- ^ a b c Kuhn, Dieter (2011). The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China. ISBN 9780674244344.
- ^ Lorge, Peter (2015). The Reunification of China: Peace through War under the Song Dynasty. p. 45. ISBN 9781107084759.
- ^ Winchester, Simon (2008). Bomb, Book and Compass: Joseph Needham and the Great Secrets of China. ISBN 9780141889894.
- ^ Bai, Zhide (2017). 大动乱:中古时代:五代辽宋夏金. ISBN 9787505141254.
- ^ Lee, Lily; Wiles, Sue (2014). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang Through Ming, 618-1644. p. xxi. ISBN 9780765643162.
- ^ Liu, Daochun (1989). Evaluations of Sung Dynasty Painters of Renown. p. 34. ISBN 9789004089662.
- ^ a b c d e f Gong, Xianzong (2014). 臺灣文學與中國童謠. p. 172. ISBN 9789577398598.
- ^ Zhang, Huicheng (2018). 天变:中国历代宫廷政变全景. ISBN 9787801757135.
- ^ Gao, Lujia (2015). 高姓简史. ISBN 9787210077862.
- ^ Tan, Zuowen; Wan, Xi (2006). 李煜. p. 7. ISBN 9787508510231.
- ^ Wu, Jiang; Chia, Lucille (2015). Spreading Buddha's Word in East Asia: The Formation and Transformation of the Chinese Buddhist Canon. p. 175. ISBN 9780231540193.
- ^ Che, Dun'an (1991). 中國歴代帝王辭典. p. 237. ISBN 9787540202590.
- ^ Chen, Huaxin (1990). 中國歷代帝王大觀. p. 379. ISBN 9787218003474.
- ^ Feng, Xianzhi (2006). 中国历代重大战争详解:隋唐战争史. ISBN 9787999031499.
- ^ Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy (2003). The Sino-Tibetan Languages. p. 7. ISBN 9780700711291.
- ^ Leidy, Denise (2008). The Art of Buddhism: An Introduction to Its History & Meaning. p. 189. ISBN 9781590306703.
- ^ Hsu (2012). p. 272.
- ^ Stone, Zofia (2017). Genghis Khan: A Biography. ISBN 9789386367112.
- ^ Szonyi, Michael (2017). A Companion to Chinese History. p. 130. ISBN 9781118624609.
- ^ Lee, Joo-Yup (2015). Qazaqlïq, or Ambitious Brigandage, and the Formation of the Qazaqs: State and Identity in Post-Mongol Central Eurasia. p. 59. ISBN 9789004306493.
- ^ Huang, Chunyi (2016). 北宋的外戚與政治. p. 3. ISBN 9789577399953.
- ^ McMahon, Keith (2016). Celestial Women: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Song to Qing. p. 24. ISBN 9781442255029.
- ^ Danver, Steven (2015). Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. p. 244. ISBN 9781317464006.
- ^ Tuttle, Gray; Schaeffer, Kurtis (2013). The Tibetan History Reader. p. 562. ISBN 9780231513548.
- ^ Kessler, Adam (2012). Song Blue and White Porcelain on the Silk Road. p. 77. ISBN 978-9004218598.
- ^ Simon, Karla (2013). Civil Society in China: The Legal Framework from Ancient Times to the "New Reform Era". p. 40. ISBN 9780190297640.
- ^ West, Stephen; Idema, Wilt (2014). The Orphan of Zhao and Other Yuan Plays: The Earliest Known Versions. p. ix. ISBN 9780231538107.
- ^ Huang, Ruyi (2017). 帝国的慢性病:冰火大明. ISBN 9787540780319.
- ^ Xing, Chunru; Li, Munan; Jie, Baofeng; Liu, Xinlian (2007). 古代民族史(下).
- ^ Baumer, Christoph (2016). The History of Central Asia: The Age of Islam and the Mongols. ISBN 9781838609399.
- ^ Liu, Xingchu (2009). 甘肃文史精萃2:学术卷. ISBN 9787999033424.
- ^ Xie, Xuanjun (2017). 少数民族入主中国史略. p. 223. ISBN 9781387255351.
- ^ May, Timothy (2016). The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. pp. 26–28. ISBN 9781610693400.
- ^ Chen, Anfeng (2014). 甲申詩史:吳梅村書寫的一六四四. p. 2. ISBN 9789888310111.
- ^ Zhong, Guochang (2019). 天崩地裂時代下的皇族. p. 3. ISBN 9789620773419.
- ^ Jenco, Leigh; Idris, Murad; Thomas, Megan (2019). The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Political Theory. p. 96. ISBN 9780190086244.
- ^ Elliott, Mark (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. p. 71. ISBN 9780804746847.
- ^ Crossley, Pamela (2002). A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology. p. 193. ISBN 9780520234246.
- ^ Lee, Ji-young (2016). China's Hegemony: Four Hundred Years of East Asian Domination. p. 236. ISBN 9780231542173.
- ^ Forêt, Philippe (2000). Mapping Chengde: The Qing Landscape Enterprise. p. 13. ISBN 9780824822934.
- ^ a b Hao, Shiyuan (2019). China's Solution to Its Ethno-national Issues. p. 51. ISBN 9789813295193.
- ^ Wang, Hongying (2016). 中国式民主的类型学意义——一种宪法学视角的阐释. ISBN 9787516181829.
- ^ Wang, Fei-ling (2017). The China Order: Centralia, World Empire, and the Nature of Chinese Power. p. 68. ISBN 9781438467504.
- ^ Gao, James (2009). Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800–1949). p. xxxvi. ISBN 9780810863088.
- ^ Yang, Yi (2018). 一本書讀懂亞洲史. p. 145. ISBN 9789863921165.
- ^ Wang, Zhenmin (2018). Relationship Between the Chinese Central Authorities and Regional Governments of Hong Kong and Macao: A Legal Perspective. p. 35. ISBN 9789811323225.
- ^ a b c d China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. 2007. p. 107. ISBN 9789629371401.
- ^ a b c d e Zhang, Qizhi; Wang, Tianyou; Cheng, Chongde (2002). 元明清史. p. 381. ISBN 9789571128696.
- ^ a b c d Gan (2019). p. 26.
- ^ Talmon, Stefan; Jia, Bing Bing (2014). The South China Sea Arbitration: A Chinese Perspective. p. 186. ISBN 9781782253754.
- ^ a b Roy, Kaushik (2014). Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400–1750: Cavalry, Guns, Government and Ships. pp. 86–87. ISBN 9781780938004.
- ^ a b Lin, Fu (2006). 中国历史地理学研究. pp. 142–143. ISBN 9787211050840.
- ^ a b Wu, Chuanjun; Yang, Qinye; Lu, Qi (2002). 20世纪中国学术大典:地理学. p. 297. ISBN 9787533430221.
- ^ Ge, Jianxiong; Hua, Linfu (2002). "The Development of Chinese Historical Geography over the Last 50 Years (1950–2000)" (PDF). Newsletter for Research in Chinese Studies. 21 (4): 20. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
- ^ Vu, Hong Lien; Sharrock, Peter (2014). Descending Dragon, Rising Tiger: A History of Vietnam. ISBN 9781780233888.
- ^ Walker, Hugh (2012). East Asia: A New History. p. 134. ISBN 9781477265178.
- ^ Chansiri, Disaphol (2008). The Chinese Émigrés of Thailand in the Twentieth Century. pp. 46–47. ISBN 9781934043745.
- ^ Zheng, Yangwen (2011). China on the Sea: How the Maritime World Shaped Modern China. p. 112. ISBN 9789004194786.
- ^ Rutherford, Scott (2002). Vietnam. p. 20. ISBN 9789812349842.
- ^ Minahan, James (2014). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. p. 231. ISBN 9781610690188.
- ^ Elman, Benjamin; Liu, Jenny (2017). The 'Global' and the 'Local' in Early Modern and Modern East Asia. p. 175. ISBN 9789004338128.
- ^ Chan, Robert (2017). Korea-China Relations in History and Contemporary Implications. p. 10. ISBN 9783319622651.
- ^ Xie, Xuanjun (2016). 第三中国论. p. 202. ISBN 9781329800250.
- ^ Wu, Weiming (2017). 東亞易學史論:《周易》在日韓越琉的傳播與影響. p. 161. ISBN 9789863502500.
- ^ Linduff, Katheryn; Rubinson, Karen (2008). Are All Warriors Male?: Gender Roles on the Ancient Eurasian Steppe. p. 126. ISBN 9781461647508.
- ^ Chan, Yuk Wah (2013). Vietnamese-Chinese Relationships at the Borderlands: Trade, Tourism and Cultural Politics. p. 28. ISBN 9781134494576.
Sources
edit- China Handbook Editorial Committee, China Handbook Series: History (trans., Dun J. Li), Beijing, 1982, pp. 188–189; and Shao Chang Lee, "China Cultural Development" (wall chart), East Lansing, 1984.
- Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2018). Chinese History: A New Manual (5th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 9780998888309. Specifically Section A.2 "Dynasties", in this and earlier editions, which includes subsections on "Naming the Dynasties", "Sets of Dynasties", "The Dynastic Cycle", "Legitimate Succession", "Grade School History" (the effect on common understanding of China's history).