Schools of Islamic theology: Difference between revisions

{{short description|Set of theological beliefs in the Islamic faith}}

{{allah}}

[[File:Abd Allah Musawwir - The Meeting of the Theologians - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|260px|''The Meeting of the Theologians'', [[Persian painting]] by Abd Allah Musawwir (mid-16th century), [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]].]]

 

 

 

== Divinity schools in Islamic theology ==

{{Muslim Beliefs|width=22.0em|Five Pillars}}

 

 

 

 

 

According to the Afghan-American philosopher [[Sayed Hassan Akhlaq|Sayed Hassan Hussaini]], the early schools of Islamic theology and theological beliefs among [[Early Islamic philosophy|classical Muslim philosophers]] are characterized by "a rich color of [[Deism]] with a slight disposition toward [[theism]]".<ref name="Hussaini 2016">{{cite journal |last=Hussaini |first=Sayed Hassan |author-link=Sayed Hassan Akhlaq |date=2016 |title=Islamic Philosophy between Theism and Deism |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |location=[[Braga]] |publisher=Aletheia - Associação Científica e Cultural |volume=72 |issue=1: ''Teísmos: Aportações Filosóficas do Leste e Oeste / Theisms: Philosophical Contributions from the East to the West'' |pages=65–83 |doi=10.17990/RPF/2016_72_1_0065 |issn=0870-5283 |jstor=43816275}}</ref>

 

 

== Sunnī schools of theology ==

[[File:Islamic_schools_of_Jurisprudence.jpg|thumb|350px|[[Madhhab#Sunni|Sunnī schools of thought]]<ref name="Geaves 2021">{{cite book |author-last=Geaves |author-first=Ronald |year=2021 |chapter=Part 1: Sunnī Traditions – Sectarianism in Sunnī Islam |editor1-last=Cusack |editor1-first=Carole M. |editor1-link=Carole M. Cusack |editor2-last=Upal |editor2-first=M. Afzal |editor2-link=Afzal Upal |title=Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=21 |doi=10.1163/9789004435544_004 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-90-04-43554-4 |issn=1874-6691 |pages=25–48}}</ref>]]

 

[[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]] are the largest [[Religious denomination|denomination]] of Islam and are known as ''''Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h'''' or simply as ''''[[Ahl as-Sunnah]]''''. The word '''Sunni''' comes from the word '''[[Sunnah]]''', which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]]. Therefore, the term "Sunni" refers to those who follow or maintain the '''Sunnah''' of [[Muhammad]].

 

 

=== Athari ===

 

 

 

 

=== ''ʿIlm al-Kalām'' ===

{{main|Ilm al-Kalam}}

 

==== Muʿtazila ====

{{main|Muʿtazila}}

 

 

Several groups were later influenced by Muʿtazilite theology, such as the [[Bishriyya]], who followed the teachings of [[Bishriyya#Distinction from Mu'tazila|Bishr ibn al-Mu'tamir]], and the [[Bahshamiyya]], who followed the teachings of [[Abu Hashim al-Jubba'i]].<ref>Humanism in the renaissance of Islam: the cultural revival during the [[Buyid|Buyid Age]], by Joel Kramer,{{ISBN|90-04-07259-4}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-07259-6}}</ref><ref>Frank, Richard M. "The Autonomy of the Human Agent in the Teaching of 'Abd al-Gabbar." Le Muséon 95(1982): 323–355</ref>

==== Ashʿarīyyah ====

{{main|Ash'ari}}

 

 

It established an orthodox guideline<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frank |first=Richard M. |date=January–March 1989 |title=Knowledge and Taqlîd: The Foundations of Religious Belief in Classical Ashʿarism |journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |volume=109 |issue=1 |publisher=[[American Oriental Society]] |pages=37–62 |doi=10.2307/604336 |jstor=604336 |issn=0003-0279 |lccn=12032032}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Glassé |editor-first=Cyril |year=2003 |orig-year=1989 |title=[[The New Encyclopedia of Islam]] |chapter=Ashʿarī |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA61 |location=[[Walnut Creek, California]] and [[Lanham, Maryland]] |publisher=[[AltaMira Press]] |edition=3rd Revised |pages=61–63 |isbn=978-0-759-10190-6 |oclc=1291928025 |access-date=2022-09-04 |archive-date=2022-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709081228/https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA61 |url-status=live }}</ref> based on [[Islamic holy books|scriptural authority]],<ref name="Nasr 2006" /><ref name="Thiele 2016" /><ref name="Frank 2020">{{cite book |author-last=Frank |author-first=Richard M. |year=2020 |origyear=2007 |chapter=Al-Ashʿarī's conception of the nature and role of speculative reasoning in theology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tkX1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |editor1-last=Frank |editor1-first=Richard M. |editor2-last=Gutas |editor2-first=Dimitri |editor2-link=Dimitri Gutas |title=Early Islamic Theology: The Muʿtazilites and al-Ashʿarī – Texts and Studies on the Development and History of Kalām, Vol. II |location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |edition=1st |pages=136–154 |doi=10.4324/9781003110385 |isbn=9780860789789 |s2cid=169898034 |lccn=2006935669 |access-date=2022-09-04 |archive-date=2022-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118051705/https://books.google.com/books?id=tkX1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[rationality]],<ref name="Nasr 2006" /><ref name="Frank 2020" /><ref name="Hoover 2020">{{cite book |author-last=Hoover |author-first=John |year=2020 |chapter=Early Mamlūk Ashʿarism against Ibn Taymiyya on the Nonliteral Reinterpretation (''taʾwīl'') of God’s Attributes |chapter-url=https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/file/3741348/1/Hoover%20%20J.%20Early%20Mamluk%20Ash%27arism.%20Pre-proof%20Deposit |editor1-last=Shihadeh |editor1-first=Ayman |editor2-last=Thiele |editor2-first=Jan |title=Philosophical Theology in Islam: Later Ashʿarism East and West |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Islamicate Intellectual History |volume=5 |pages=195–230 |doi=10.1163/9789004426610_009 |isbn=978-90-04-42661-0 |s2cid=219026357 |issn=2212-8662 |lccn=2020008682 |access-date=2022-09-04 |archive-date=2022-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118051711/https://books.google.com/books?id=B3znDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Halverson|2010|pages=14-15}}<ref>Weeks, Douglas. "The Ideology of Al Muhajiroun." Al Muhajiroun. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2020. 103-140.</ref> and theological [[rationalism]].<ref name="Nasr 2006" /><ref name="Frank 2020" />{{sfn|Halverson|2010|pages=14-15}}<ref>Gyekye, Kwame. "Theology and Law in Islam." (1976): 304-306.</ref><ref>Fah̲rī, Mağīd. Ethical theories in Islam. Vol. 8. Brill, 1991.</ref><ref>Hashas, Mohammed. "Is European Islam Experiencing an Ontological Revolution for an Epistemological Awakening?." American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 31: 4 (2014): 14.</ref> As a young man, al-Ashʿarī studied under [[al-Jubba'i]], a renowned teacher of [[Muʿtazila|Muʿtazilite theology]] and [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophy]].<ref>Marshall Cavendish Reference, Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World, p 87. {{ISBN|0761479295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Allard|first=Michel|title=Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī, Muslim theologian|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abu-al-Hasan-al-Ashari#ref260804|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029094518/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abu-al-Hasan-al-Ashari#ref260804|archive-date=2020-10-29|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2021-04-01}}</ref> He was noted for his teachings on [[atomism]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/hmp/14.htm |title=Ash'ari - A History of Muslim Philosophy |access-date=2022-09-04 |archive-date=2018-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527145604/http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/hmp/14.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> among the [[Early Islamic philosophy|earliest Islamic philosophies]], and for al-Ashʿarī this was the basis for propagating the view that [[God in Islam|God]] created every moment in [[time]] and every particle of [[matter]]. He nonetheless believed in [[Free will in theology|free will]], elaborating the thoughts of Dirar ibn 'Amr and [[Abu Hanifa]] into a "dual agent" or "acquisition" (''iktisab'') account of free will.<ref>Watt, Montgomery. Free-Will and Predestination in Early Islam. Luzac & Co.: London 1948.</ref>

==== Mātūrīd’iyyah ====

{{main|Maturidi}}

 

The Maturidi school takes the middle position between the Ash'ari and Mu'tazili schools on the questions of knowing truth and [[free will]]. The Maturidis say that the unaided human mind is able to find out that some of the more major sins such as alcohol or murder are evil without the help of revelation, but still maintain that revelation is the ultimate source of knowledge. Additionally, the Maturidi believe that God created and can control all of His creation, but that He allows humans to make individual decisions and choices for themselves.

== Jahmiyyah ==

{{main|Jahmites}}

 

== Qadariyyah ==

{{main|Qadariyyah}}

 

== Muhakkima ==

{{main|Muhakkima}}

{{Muhakkima Islam |expanded=all}}

 

=== Khawarij ===

{{main|Khawarij}}

 

 

Kharijites reject the doctrine of [[Ismah|infallibility]] for the leader of the Muslim community, in contrast to Shi'a but in agreement with Sunnis.<ref>[[Al-Baydawi|Baydawi, Abdullah]]. "Tawali' al- Anwar min Matali' al-Anzar", circa 1300. Translated alongside other texts in the 2001 "Nature, Man and God in Medieval Islam" by Edwin Elliott Calverley and James Wilson Pollock. pp. 1001–1009</ref> Modern-day Islamic scholar [[Abul Ala Maududi]] wrote an analysis of Kharijite beliefs, marking a number of differences between Kharijism and Sunni Islam. The Kharijites believed that the act of sinning is analogous to [[Kufr]] (disbelief) and that every grave sinner was regarded as a [[Kafir|Kāfir]] (disbeliever) unless he repents. With this argument, they denounced all the above-mentioned [[Ṣaḥābah]] and even cursed and used abusive language against them. Ordinary Muslims were also declared disbelievers because first, they were not free of sin; secondly they regarded the above-mentioned [[Ṣaḥābah]] as believers and considered them as religious leaders, even inferring [[Islamic jurisprudence]] from the [[Hadith|Hadeeth]] narrated by them.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> They also believed that it is not a must for the [[caliph]] to be from the [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]]. Any pious Muslim nominated by other Muslims could be an eligible [[caliph]].<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Additionally, Kharijites believed that obedience to the caliph is binding as long as he is managing the affairs with justice and consultation, but if he deviates, then it becomes obligatory to confront him, demote him and even kill him.

== Murji'ah ==

{{main|Murji'ah}}

 

== Shīʿa schools of theology ==

 

=== Zaydi-Fivers ===

 

=== Bāṭin’iyyah ===

{{main|Batin (Islam)|Esoteric interpretation of the Quran|Sufi cosmology}}

{{further|Sevener|Qarmatians|Fatimid Islamic Caliphate|Hashashins}}

 

==== Imami-Ismā'īlīs ====

* Their [[ʿAqīdah|aqidah]] ''(theological conviction)'' is based upon a syncretic [[fiqh]] system called as "[[Batiniyya]]-[[Sufism]]"<ref name="BĀṬENĪYA"/> which incorporates some ''[[Qarmatian]] sentiments,'' originally introduced by ''"Abu’l-Khāttāb Muhammad ibn Abu Zaynab al-Asadī"'',<ref name="ABU’L-ḴAṬṬĀB ASADĪ"/><ref name="ḴAṬṬĀBIYA"/> and later developed by [[Maymun al-Qaddah|Maymun al-Qāddāh]] and his son [[Abd Allah ibn Maymun al-Qaddah|ʿAbd Allāh ibn Maymun]].<ref name="MAYMŪN"/>

* On the other hand, the members of [[Bektashi Order]] have a conviction of "[[Batiniyya]] [[Isma'ilism]]"<ref name="BĀṬENĪYA"/> and "[[Hurufism]]" with a strong belief in ''[[The Twelve Imams]]''.

* The [[Twelver]] branch of [[Shia Islam]] [[Muslim]] population of [[Turkey]] is composed of [[Mu'tazila]] [[ʿAqīdah|aqidah]] of [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]] [[madhhab]], [[Batiniyya]]-[[Sufism]] [[ʿAqīdah|aqidah]] of Maymūn’al-Qāddāhī [[fiqh]] of the Alevīs, and Cillī [[aqidah]] of Maymūn ibn [[Al-Tabarani|Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī]] [[fiqh]] of the [[Alawites]].<ref name="Meymûn"/><ref>Both ''Muhammad ibn Āliyy’ūl Cillī'' and ''Maymūn ibn [[Al-Tabarani|Abu’l-Qāsim’at-Tabarānī]]'' were the [[murid]]s of ''"[[Al-Khaṣībī]]",'' the founder of the [[Ibn Nusayr|Nusayri]] [[tariqa]].</ref>

{{further|Al-Hallaj|Sevener|Qarmatians|Baba Ishak|Babai Revolt|Hassan II (imam)|Nur al-Din Muhammad II}}

 

===== Baktāshism ''(Bektaşilik)'' =====

{{main|Bektashism}}

 

====== Baktāshi Islamic School of Divinity ======

{{main|Twelvers|Imamah (Shia Twelver doctrine)}}

 

 

==== Imami-Ja'faris ====

 

======‘Alawite Islamic School of Divinity ======

 

 

======The ‘Alawite ʿaqīdah======

Alawites have always described themselves as being Twelver Shi'ite Muslims and have been recognized as such by the prominent Lebanese Shi'ite cleric [[Musa al-Sadr]].<ref name="Kramer">{{cite web|url=http://www.martinkramer.org/sandbox/reader/archives/syria-alawis-and-shiism/|title=Syria's ''Alawis and Shi'ism|last=Kramer|first=Martin|date=11 January 2010|quote=In their mountainous corner of Syria, the 'Alawī claim to represent the furthest extension of Twelver Shi'ism.|access-date=2 August 2014|archive-date=24 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211635/http://martinkramer.org/sandbox/reader/archives/syria-alawis-and-shiism/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Sunni [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]] [[Haj Amin al-Husseini]] issued a ''fatwa'' recognising them as part of the [[Ummah|Muslim community]] in the interest of [[Arab nationalism]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Talhamy | first1 = Y. | title = The Fatwas and the Nusayri/Alawis of Syria | doi = 10.1080/00263200902940251 | journal = Middle Eastern Studies | volume = 46 | issue = 2 | pages = 175–194 | year = 2010 | s2cid = 144709130 }}</ref><ref name="Bar-AsherKootstra2002">{{cite book|author1=Me'ir Mikha'el Bar-Asher|author2=Gauke de Kootstra|author3=Arieh Kofsky|title=The Nuṣayr−i-ʻalaw−i Religion: An Enquiry Into Its Theology and Liturgy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2bli4DyuHRIC&pg=RA1-PA153|access-date=18 March 2011|year=2002|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-12552-0|pages=1|archive-date=18 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118051707/https://books.google.com/books?id=2bli4DyuHRIC&pg=RA1-PA153|url-status=live}}</ref> However, [[Athari]] Sunni (modern day [[Salafi]]s) scholars such as [[Ibn Kathir]] ''(a disciple of [[Ibn Taymiyya]])'' have categorised Alawites as [[Paganism|pagans]] in their writings.<ref name="GlobSec"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17085226|title=Syria crisis: Deadly shooting at Damascus funeral|work=BBC News|date=18 February 2012|access-date=22 April 2015|archive-date=24 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211617/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17085226|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="abdullah">Abd-Allah, Umar F., ''Islamic Struggle in Syria'', Berkeley : Mizan Press, c1983, pp. 43–48</ref>

 

 

Some sources have discussed the "Sunnification" of [[Alawites]] under the al-Assad regime.<ref name=dilemma/> [[Joshua Landis]], director of the Center for Middle East Studies, writes that [[Hafiz al-Assad]] "tried to turn Alawites into 'good' (read Sunnified) Muslims in exchange for preserving a modicum of secularism and tolerance in society". On the other hand, Al-Assad "declared the Alawites to be nothing but Twelver Shiites".<ref name=dilemma>[http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/syriablog/2004/10/asads-alawi-dilemma.htm Syrian comment. Asad's Alawi dilemma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194959/http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/syriablog/2004/10/asads-alawi-dilemma.htm |date=2016-03-04 }}, 8 October 2004</ref> In a paper, "Islamic Education in Syria", Landis wrote that "no mention" is made in Syrian textbooks (controlled by the Al-Assad regime) of [[Alawites]], [[Druze]], [[Ismailism|Ismaili]]s or Shia Islam; Islam was presented as a monolithic religion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Islamic%20Education%20in%20Syria.htm|title=Islamic Education in Syria: Undoing Secularism|publisher=OU|access-date=25 December 2012|archive-date=28 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228101011/http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Islamic%20Education%20in%20Syria.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Ali Sulayman al-Ahmad, chief judge of the Baathist Syrian state, has said: {{Cquote|We are [[‘Alawi]] [[Muslims]]. Our book is the [[Qur'an]]. Our prophet is [[Muhammad]]. The [[Kaaba|Ka`ba]] is our [[qibla]], and our [[Dīn]] ''(religion)'' is [[Islam]].<ref name="Yunis 1992, p. 63"/>}}

====== The Qizilbash ʿaqīdah ======

[[File:Arolsen Klebeband 01 457 1.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Shah Ismail I]], the [[Sheikh]] of the [[Safaviyya|Safavi]] [[tariqa]], founder of the [[Safavid dynasty]] of [[Iran]], and the [[Commander-in-chief]] of the [[Kızılbaş]] [[army|armies]] had contributed a lot for the development and implementation of ''The [[Qizilbash]] [[ʿAqīdah]]'' amongst the [[Turkmen people]].]]

 

The doctrine of [[Qizilbash]]ism is well explained in the following poem written by the [[Shaykh]] of [[Safaviyya]] [[tariqah]] [[Ismail I|Shāh Ismāʿil Khatai]]:

١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / [[God in Islam|Allah]] bir [[Muhammad-Ali]]'dir. ''([[God in Islam|Allah]] is unique [[Muhammad-Ali]])''}}

 

{{Further|Khatai|Muhammad-Ali|Haqq-Muhammad-Ali}}

 

=== Anthropopathy in the history of Ghulāt Shīʿīsm ===

{{main|Anthropopathism|Anthropotheism}}

{{further|Ghulāt|List of extinct Shia sects|Kaysanites Shia|Khurramites}}

 

== Ahmadiyya ==

{{Ahmadiyya|collapsed=1}}

 

Ahmadi teachings state that the founders of all the major world religions had divine origins. God was working towards the establishment of Islam as the final religion, because it was the most complete and included all the previous teachings of other religion<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alislam.org/library/articles/The_Promised_Messiah_Prophecies_Fulfilled-20081007MN.html |title=The Promised Messiah – Prophecies Fulfilled |publisher=Alislam.org |access-date=2011-08-13| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110725000642/http://www.alislam.org/library/articles/The_Promised_Messiah_Prophecies_Fulfilled-20081007MN.html| archive-date= 25 July 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> (but they believe that all other religions have gone astray in their present form). The completion and consummation of the development of religion came about with the coming of Muhammad; and that the perfection of the ‘manifestation’ of Muhammad's prophethood and of the conveyance of his message was destined to occur with the coming of the [[Mahdi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alislam.org/quran/tafseer/?page=2739&region=E1&CR=EN,E2 |title=The Holy Quran |publisher=Alislam.org |access-date=2011-08-13| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110725000651/http://www.alislam.org/quran/tafseer/?page=2739&region=E1&CR=EN,E2| archive-date= 25 July 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>

 

 

== See also ==

== References ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

 

== Further reading ==

*{{cite journal |author-last=Sabra |author-first=A. I. |date=January 2009 |title=The Simple Ontology of Kalām Atomism: An Outline |journal=[[Early Science and Medicine]] |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=14 |issue=1-3: ''Evidence and Interpretation: Studies on Early Science and Medicine in Honor of John E. Murdoch'' |pages=68–78 |doi=10.1163/157338209X425506 |issn=1573-3823 |jstor=20617778 |pmid=19831225}}

*{{cite book |editor-last=al-Salimi |editor-first=Abdulrahman |year=2021 |title=Early Ibadi Theology: New Material on Rational Thought in Islam from the Pen of al-Fazārī (2nd/8th Century) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CIs5EAAAQBAJ |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Islamic History and Civilization |volume=182 |doi=10.1163/9789004459571 |isbn=978-90-04-45957-1 |s2cid=243595906 |issn=0929-2403 |oclc=1256592318 |access-date=2022-01-20 |archive-date=2022-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118051709/https://books.google.com/books?id=CIs5EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}

{{refend}}