7 SMART TIPS

TO IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

• Help correct one another’s mistakes

• 
Read to improve your English
• 
Listen to well-spoken English
• 
Read out loud to grow in confidence
• Check and double check your work
• Make good use of available resources
• Speak and write clearly to be understood
05 / C ountable and Uncountable Nouns

14 / Pronouns

28 / Adjectives

43 / Tenses

51 / Subject-Verb Agreement

59 / Prepositions

67 / Adverbs

79 / Conjunctions

93 / Common Errors
 Countable and
Uncountable Nouns

A noun is a word that refers to a person, place, thing,

event, substance or quality; it can be either countable
or uncountable.

Countable nouns have singular and plural forms while

uncountable nouns can be used only in the singular form.
In English grammar, words that refer to people, places or
things are called nouns. There are several ways to classify
nouns. One way is whether they are countable (also known
as count) or uncountable (also known as non-count) nouns.
Countable nouns, as the term suggests, are things that can
be counted.

They have singular and plural forms.

E.g.
• table, tables; month, months; pen, pens.

A countable noun becomes plural by adding s to the end

of the word. Of course, there are nouns that form plurals in
other ways.

E.g.
• man, men; child, children; goose, geese.

6
In contrast, uncountable nouns cannot be counted. They
have a singular form and do not have a plural form – you
can’t add an s to it, e.g. dirt, rice, information and hair.
Some uncountable nouns are abstract nouns, such as
advice and knowledge.

E.g.
• Her jewellery is designed by a well-known designer.
• I needed some advice, so I went to see the counsellor.

Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending

on the context or situation.

E.g.
• We’ll have two coffees (countable).
• I don’t like coffee (uncountable).

7
ARTICLES

You cannot refer to a singular countable noun on its own. It is

usually preceded by an article, either the indefinite article – a,
an – or the definite article the.

Indefinite Article

When the countable noun is mentioned for the first time,

you use an indefinite article a for words beginning with a
consonant sound or an if the noun begins with a vowel sound.
However, when a countable noun is mentioned again later, it
is usually preceded by the definite article the.

E.g.
• I saw a (indefinite article) cat yesterday.
The (definite article) cat was grey with black stripes.
• T he girl was wearing a (indefinite article preceding
word with a consonant sound “you”) uniform but it
looked faded. The (definite article) uniform was old.
• I took an (indefinite article preceding word with a
vowel sound “um”) umbrella as it was beginning to
rain. It did not help because the (definite article)
umbrella was faulty.

8
Sometimes when uncountable nouns are treated as countable
nouns, you can use the indefinite article.

E.g.
• Please select a wine that you like.

Definite Article

You can use the with countable nouns when you want to refer
to a specific person or thing.

E.g.
• The baby stared at the moon in fascination.
Please take me to the clinic near the coffee shop.
• 
I’m not feeling well.

The indefinite article a/an is not used with uncountable

nouns. However, the definite article the can be used with
uncountable nouns when referring to specific items.

E.g.
• I found the luggage that I had lost.
• I appreciated the honesty of the salesman.

9
Tricky Uncountable Nouns

The noun fruit is usually considered an uncountable noun.

E.g.
• Fruit is good for your health.

When referring to a single piece of fruit, you would say,

• She had only a piece of fruit for lunch!

However, when referring to different kinds of fruit, you may use

fruit as a countable noun.

E.g.
• I love to shop at that supermarket – they have a wide
variety of tropical fruits.

S imilarly, you may use an indefinite article for uncountable

nouns when you are referring to a single item.

E.g.
• a piece of furniture, a bottle of water, a grain of rice.

10
Quantifiers

Countable and uncountable nouns may also be used with

quantifiers. These are words that express amount or quantity.
Common examples are some, any, more, few, little, several.

However, there are some quantifiers that can be used with

only countable nouns: many, few, a few, fewer, several.

E.g.
• 
The citizens came to the meeting with many
suggestions on how to improve their neighbourhood.
•  ewer tourists visited that area as it was known to
F
be unsafe.

Some other quantifiers can be used with only uncountable

nouns: much, little, a bit of.

E.g.
• Would you like a bit of pepper in your soup?
• There’s very little dessert left.

Some quantifiers may be used with both countable and

uncountable nouns: all, some, any, lots of, plenty of, enough.

E.g.
• He has enough courage to face the bullies.
• 
We have some plates for the party tonight. Tracy will
bring more.

11
Subject-Verb Agreement

Countable nouns may take singular or plural verbs.

E.g.
• Our neighbour is singing at the competition tonight.
• 
Our neighbours are singing at the
competition tonight.

However, uncountable nouns are considered singular and

may take only singular verbs.

Nouns such as luggage, furniture and jewellery are

uncountable nouns and take singular verbs.

E.g.
• The furniture in this house needs to be replaced.
• 
The apparatus for the next experiment has been
set up.
• My luggage has been checked in.

Uncountable nouns ending with s may pose a problem to

users of English.

12
These nouns have the plural ending s, but they take a
singular verb.

E.g.
• The news is not good.
• Mathematics is a very important subject.

All uncountable nouns associated with clothes, such as shorts,

jeans and briefs, are plural uncountables. They cannot be
used in the singular form or with numbers. We cannot say for
example a shorts or two shorts. Instead we say:

E.g.
• Can you lend me a pair of shorts? I didn’t bring mine.

13
 Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or noun phrase that

has already been mentioned in a text or conversation.
PRONOUNS

There are several types of pronouns. Among them are

personal, possessive, demonstrative, indefinite, reflexive
and relative pronouns.

Personal pronouns stand in for nouns and noun phrases, and

usually refer back in a text or conversation to them.

E.g.
•  ane is going to watch the parade tomorrow. She
J
plans to leave at 4pm.
We are collecting old photographs for our project.
• 
They should still be in good condition.

15
Personal pronouns may be categorised as follows:

PERSON SINGUL AR PLURAL

Subject Object Subject Object

First (person speaking) I me we us

Second (person
you you you you
spoken to)

Third (person spoken of) he, she, it him, her, it they them

He refers to a male.
She refers to a female.
It refers to a thing or animal.

16
Positions of Pronouns in Sentences

A pronoun can be the subject of a verb:

E.g.
• I can’t catch the mouse. It moves too quickly.

A pronoun can be the object of a verb:

E.g.
• 
The flowers look beautiful. Sally arranged them
just now.

A pronoun can be the object of a preposition:

E.g.
• I’m going to buy some snacks. Make sure you keep
a place for me.

17
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

These refer to the person or animal that is the subject

of the verb. The following are reflexive pronouns.

PERSON SINGUL AR PLURAL

First myself ourselves

Second yourself yourselves

Third himself, herself, itself themselves

18
Positions of Reflexive Pronouns
in Sentences

Reflexive pronouns may be used:

As the object of a verb.

E.g.
• Meera blames herself for the mistake.

As the object of a preposition.

E.g.
• Stop looking at yourself in the mirror.

As the indirect object of a verb.

E.g.
• Tara gave herself a treat.

To emphasise a noun or personal pronoun.

E.g.
• Jane herself baked this delicious cake.

19
PO SSE S SIVE PRONOUNS

Examples of possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers,

ours, theirs, its.

Unlike personal pronouns, these usually stand alone and do

not have to precede a noun,

E.g.
• 
Karen told me that she had lost her phone. That must
be hers.
• They have found their seats. Have you spotted ours?
• The cat is looking for its master.

Note: The possessive pronoun its is different from it’s. It’s is a

contracted form of it is or it has.

20
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

The indefinite pronoun is used when referring to no particular

person or thing.

Some indefinite pronouns refer to people, e.g. someone,

anyone, everybody, no one, everyone, nobody.

Some indefinite pronouns refer to things, e.g. something,

anything, everything, nothing.

E.g.
• Someone is at the door.
• Where is everyone?
• Has anyone seen the television remote control?

21
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

A demonstrative pronoun points to a specific thing or things

to indicate whether they are near or far, in space and/or
time. Like possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns stand
alone and do not have to precede a noun.

NEAR IN DISTANCE FAR IN DISTANCE

OR TIME OR TIME

Singular this that

Plural these those

E.g.
• J ane stopped eating rice for dinner. This has helped
her lose weight quickly.
• That was the last time I saw my colleague Matthew.

22
RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Who, whom, whose, which and that function as relative

pronouns when they add further information to the things or
people mentioned in the sentence.

REL ATIVE PR ONOUN REFERS TO

who a person or people

whom a person or people

which a thing or things

whose a person, people, a thing or things

that animal(s) or thing(s)

The difference between who and whom is that who may

be the subject of a verb; it is also often used as an object
although this is frowned upon.

E.g.
• Isn’t that Shyla who objected to the proposal?
• T hese are candidates whom we interviewed
last week.

23
Whom is used only as the object of a verb. Both who
and whom can be the object of a preposition but if the
preposition comes before the pronoun, you must use whom.
This is illustrated in the examples below.

E.g.
• Whom/who did you speak to about this matter?
• To whom did you speak about this matter?

The relative pronoun that can often be used instead of who,

whom and which.

E.g.
• The shirt that Matthew bought has some stains on it.

Note: American English favours the use of that over which

while British English still uses both that and which.

24
Now test yourself!
How well do you understand pronouns?

Fill in the blanks with the correct pronouns from

the box below.

I it we herself she this you they your that

Dear Mr Eric Tan,

I am writing this letter as a note of appreciation for the good

service I received at your restaurant recently. I was at the

Plum Blossom Restaurant with my family on 20th June.

1. were fortunate to experience the great service

that 2. restaurant is well known for. The dishes

were served promptly. More importantly, Ms Shirley Teo and

her team provided excellent service. 3. were very

attentive and Ms Teo 4. ensured that we were

well taken care of. 5. was never flustered even

when the restaurant became more crowded.

25
The dish 6. we liked best was the Peking Duck.

7. is the best I have ever eaten. The duck was

succulent and tender. 8. would give it five stars!

My family will definitely dine at the Plum Blossom Restaurant

again. 9. is a promise I intend to keep! Once

again I thank 10. for the excellent

service and food.

Yours sincerely,
Mrs Jamie Lee

26
ANSWERS

1. We (personal pronoun, refers back to the noun, family)

2. your (possessive pronoun, refers to the restaurant owned

by the reader, Mr Eric Tan)

3. They (personal pronoun, refers back to the noun phrase,

Ms Shirley Teo and her team)

4. herself (reflexive pronoun, for emphasis, draws attention to

Ms Shirley Teo)

5. She (personal pronoun, refers back to Ms Shirley Teo)

6. that (relative pronoun, refers to the noun phrase, the dish)

7. It (personal pronoun, refers back to the noun phrase,

the Peking Duck)

8. I (personal pronoun, refers to the writer of the letter,

Mrs Jamie Lee)

9. This (demostrative pronoun, used before a singular,

noun, promise. It also indicates something that will take
place soon)

10. you (personal pronoun, refers to the restaurant owner,

Mr Eric Tan)

27
 Adjectives

An adjective is a word that describes people, objects, events,

substances and ideas.
ADJECTIVES

Do you want to add colour to your speech or writing? Try

using appropriate, vivid adjectives to express your thoughts
and feelings. Adjectives describe nouns by telling us more
about them, e.g. their size, colour or shape.

Using adjectives to describe the things, people or ideas we

are talking about helps our readers and listeners form a more
vivid picture of them.

E.g. 
•  lease bring that beautiful leather bag to me.
P
(expresses a positive opinion)
• S he was a timid, nondescript girl when she was at
school. (expresses a negative opinion)

29
Formation of Adjectives

Adjectives may exist on their own, without prefixes or suffixes.

E.g.
• good, tall, fat, wide, simple, gaunt.

Many adjectives are formed from adding suffixes to nouns.

E.g.
• hairy, hairless, marketable, joyful, troublesome.

30
Sometimes, adjectives may be formed by adding suffixes
to verbs.

E.g.
•  ttractive, washable, expectant,
a
boring, disappointed.

When a negative prefix such as un, il, dis, in, im or ir is added

to an adjective, it creates an opposite or negative meaning.

E.g.
unnatural, illogical, dishonest, infamous,
• 
immoral, irreverent.

31
Positions of Adjectives in Sentences

Adjectives may be found in three positions in a sentence:

Before a noun:

E.g.
• exciting lesson, empty room.

As a subject complement, after a linking verb:

E.g.
• The shop is open.
• John is sick.

After a noun or an indefinite pronoun:

E.g.
• I wrote to the person concerned.
• Is there anyone important at the meeting?

32
How do you use Adjectives?

You can use adjectives in the ways suggested below.


Use two or more adjectives to describe a noun in
greater detail.

E.g.
• small grey cat,
• desperate, brazen thief

Show comparison and contrast using parallel phrases such as

‘not only … but also’, ‘as … as’.

E.g.
• Beatrice is not only intelligent, but also hardworking.
• Tom is as strong as his father.

Use adjectives to express opinions:

E.g.
• What a boring play! The director was unimaginative.

33
Adjectives describe many different things, such as size,
shape, colour, quality, origin or nationality, material, and
the speaker’s or writer’s opinion.

It is common to find two or more adjectives before a noun.

However, they cannot be strung together randomly; rather,
they follow a fairly strict order, from top to bottom:

Observation/Opinion : lovely, boring, beautiful, fascinating

Size : petite, gigantic, high, long
Shape : round, square, oval, circular
Age : old, new, young
Colour : red, blue, green, yellow
Nationality/Origin : Chinese, American, British, Christian
Material : gold, silver, silk, linen

E.g.
• small old wooden box
• beautiful colourful Turkish rug

34
Some pointers when using Adjectives

Your opinion usually precedes any other adjective.

E.g.
Those horrible yellow chairs; a foolish young boy.

It is common to use two adjectives together, but it is less

usual to use three or more adjectives together.

Use commas to separate adjectives from the same

category, e.g. opinion.

• A handsome, charming man.

You do not have to use commas if the adjectives are from

different categories, e.g. opinion and nationality.

• A wealthy Japanese businessman.

35
Comparison of Adjectives

Adjectives are useful when you want to compare

things. Adjectives have three degrees: positive,
comparative, superlative.

The positive merely describes a noun, e.g. a tall child.

The comparative compares one person, animal or object

with another.

E.g.
• She is taller than her mother.

The superlative compares a person, animal or object with

more than one other.

E.g.
• She is the tallest in her class.

36
How do you use adjectives to show comparison?

Words containing one or two syllables take the suffix -er in the
comparative form and -est in the superlative.

Many adjectives containing two syllables and all adjectives

containing three or more syllables have the word more or
most before the adjective to convey the comparative and
superlative respectively.

E.g.
• more intelligent, most comfortable.

37
Here are some examples:

Posi tive Compara tive Su per la tive

fast faster fastest

small smaller smallest

careful more careful most careful

generous more generous most generous

Here are some examples where the comparative and

superlative do not have the -er or -est suffix:

Posi tive Compara tive Su per la tive

bad worse worst

good better best

many more most

much more most

38
Now test yourself!
How well do you know your adjectives?

Test 1

Correct the following sentences by changing the order of

the adjectives. Explain why the order is incorrect.

1. I want to buy that ruby oval ring.

2. Chartres is a French beautiful city near Paris.

3. I’m going to feed the small pitiful cat.

4. They have a new blue charming letter box.

5. John wore a silk blue tie to the wedding.

39
Test 2

Fill in the table with the correct comparative and

superlative adjectives.

Posi tive Compara tive Su per la tive

active

old

simple

far

little

40
ANSWERS

Test 1

The sentences are incorrect as they do not follow the

accepted order of adjectives. Here are the sentences,
with the correct versions:

1. Incorrect: I want to buy that ruby oval ring.

(material, shape)
Correct: I want to buy that oval ruby (shape,
material) ring.

2. Incorrect: Chartres is a French beautiful city near Paris.

(nationality, opinion)
Correct: Chartres is a beautiful French (opinion,
nationality) city near Paris.

3. Incorrect: I’m going to feed the small pitiful cat.

(size, opinion)
Correct: I’m going to feed the pitiful smal (opinion,
size) cat.

4. Incorrect: They have a new blue charming letter box.

(age, colour, opinion)
Correct: They have a charming new blue (opinion, age,
colour) letter box.

5. Incorrect: John wore a silk blue tie to the wedding.

(material, colour)
Correct: John wore a blue silk (colour, material) tie
to the wedding.

41
Test 2

Posi tive Compara tive Su per la tive

active more active most active

old older oldest

simple simpler simplest

far farther, further farthest, furthest

little less least

42
 Tenses

Tenses show when something happens.

Present tense - I eat.

Past tense - I ate.
Future tense - I will eat.
Verbs are one of the most important classes of words. They tell
us what is happening in terms of actions or the state of affairs
in a particular situation.

E.g.
• The children talk (verb) very loudly.
• My daughter is (verb) a talented artist.

All sentences require a verb. The tenses are parts of verbs that
tell you the time when the action referred to in the sentence
took place.

The base form is the basic verb form. It is so called as it has

no inflections (i.e., no endings such as -s, -ing or -ed).

This is the form of the verb that is listed in dictionary entries.

The base form of any verb can be changed into a singular or
plural, present or past tense.

E.g.
• smile (base form)
• smiles (third person singular, present tense)
• smiled (past tense)

44
In English, there are two tenses: the present and past. As the
terms imply, the present tense refers to actions and states
in the present while the past tense talks about actions and
states in the past. To refer to the future, we often use the
present tense and modal verbs.

E.g.
• We leave for London tonight. (using the present tense)
•  e will attend the dinner on Friday.
W
(using the modal verb will)

The present tense is the most basic tense in English. Generally

we use it to refer to present activities or to talk about routines
or habits. We also use the present tense to refer to facts and
beliefs. It is also used to make general statements about
people and things.

E.g.
• She leaves for work at 7.30 every morning. (routine)
• The sun rises in the east. (fact)
•  arry usually drinks a glass of wine with his meal.
H
(generalisation)

45
Regular verbs are made past tense by adding -ed.

E.g.
• T he audience laughed (past tense) loudly at his joke.
[laugh (base form) + ed ]

Irregular verbs differ from the base form as they have a

different spelling to indicate the past tense.

E.g.
• swim (base form) - swam (past tense).

Unlike the present tense, the form of a verb in the past tense is
the same whether the subject is singular or plural.

E.g.
• The girl (singular subject) drank the water.
• The girls (plural subject) drank the water.

46
Other parts of the verb are the present participle and past
participle. (See table on page 50: Different Forms of Verb.)
The present participle and the auxiliary verb be form the
continuous tenses.

The present continuous indicates ongoing or future activity.

E.g.
• The workers are repairing the burst pipe.
• I am taking my dog for a walk in an hour’s time.

The past continuous is used for an activity that was ongoing

at a certain point in the past.

E.g.
• She was working very hard last month.

It is also used to indicate an ongoing situation that was

interrupted by a single past action.

E.g.
• T he audience was enjoying the concert when the
police arrived.

47
The present perfect tense is used when an action or situation
in the present is linked to a moment in the past. It is often used
to show actions that have happened up to the present but
aren’t completed yet.

The present perfect is formed by have/has + past participle;

the past perfect is formed by had + past participle.

Examples of the use of the present perfect tense.

• We can go out now – my car has been repaired.
• I have worked in the city for the past five years.

Often speakers of English make mistakes with the use of the

present perfect and simple past.

E.g.
• I have watched that movie on Friday.

The use of the simple past tense would be correct in

this instance:

E.g.
• I watched that movie on Friday.

48
Usually the present perfect should not be linked to a specific
time (in this case, Friday) but to a duration of time such as
recently, before, and since last year.

Most people have a problem with the past perfect tense.

A rule to remember is: when a sentence refers to two past
actions, you use the past perfect to indicate the action that
took place first.

E.g.
By the time I arrived (simple past), the train had left
• 
(past perfect).
To my horror, I realised (simple past) at the airport that
• 
I had forgotten (past perfect) to bring my passport!

49
Different Forms of Verbs

BASE SINGUL AR PRESENT PAST PAST

FORM PRESENT PARTICI- TENSE PARTICIPLE
TENSE PLE

begin begins beginning began begun

bite bites biting bit bitten

catch catches catching caught caught

fall falls falling fell fallen

forget forgets forgetting forgot forgotten

freeze freezes freezing froze frozen

give gives giving gave given

know knows knowing knew known

run runs running ran run

sing sings singing sang sung

write writes writing wrote written

50
 Subject-Verb
Agreement

Singular subjects go with singular verbs while plural subjects

go with plural verbs.

Match your subject with the correct verb form.

Have you ever wondered why we say She looks very pretty
and not She look very pretty? The answer lies in grammar rules
on concord, or subject-verb agreement. The basic rule is that
singular verbs must agree with singular nouns, while plural
verbs must agree with plural nouns. What is a noun? It is a
word to name people, places, events, things or ideas.

E.g.
• teacher, Orchard Road, party, basket, beauty.

How do you recognise a singular or plural verb?

A singular verb (for third-person subjects he, she, it ) is one that

has an s added to it in the present tense, such as writes, plays,
runs, and uses forms such as is, was, has, does. A plural verb
does not have an s added to it, such as write, play, run, and
uses forms such as are, were, have and do.

E.g.
• Jack (singular noun) enjoys (singular verb) playing
golf every Sunday.
• T he men (plural noun) enjoy (plural verb) playing
golf every Sunday.

In the case of pronouns, he, she and it take a singular verb

while you, we and they take a plural verb.

We (plural pronoun) think (plural verb) that she (singular

pronoun) is (singular verb) innocent.

52
However, there are exceptions to the rules mentioned earlier.

If the two nouns are conjoined and represent a single idea,

then the verb is singular.

E.g.
• Bread and butter is available on request.
• Fish and chips is my favourite meal.
• Law and order is the new government’s priority.

Problems also arise when the speaker or writer is faced with

more than one noun or pronoun in the sentence.

E.g.
• T he quality of our students’ essays has
fallen drastically.

In this case, the verb has fallen agrees with the subject (first
noun mentioned) or head noun of the noun phrase, quality.

E.g.
• The spokes of that wheel are broken.

In this case, the subject of the sentence is spokes (plural head

noun), hence the plural verb are.

53
When a singular and a plural noun or pronoun (subjects) are
joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the subject
nearer the verb.

E.g.
• T he girls or their father collects the newspapers
every morning.

In this example, the singular verb, collects, agrees with the

noun closer to it, the singular noun, father.

People often get confused when deciding whether a singular

or plural verb should agree with some collective nouns.

E.g.
Should we say
The football team is (singular verb) ready to
• 
be photographed.

Or

The football team are (plural verb) ready to

• 
be photographed.

54
Well, it depends on whether we are thinking of the team as
a single collective unit or as individuals. If it is the former, then
the verb should be singular. However, if we are considering
the team as comprising individual members who are not
acting as a single unit, then we use the plural verb.

Other examples:
My family (considered as a collective unit) comes
• 
from Kuala Lumpur.
• T he audience (considered as individuals) were
clamouring for more songs but the singer left
the stage.
• T he Committee is ready to present its findings
this afternoon.

A point to note is that American English almost always

treats collective nouns as singular, hence it prefers using
singular verbs with these nouns.

Nouns which have two parts such as spectacles, scissors or

pants require plural verbs.

E.g.
• My spectacles are missing.
• These scissors need sharpening.

However, when regarded as a pair, a singular verb is used.

E.g.
• My pair of spectacles is missing.
• This pair of scissors needs sharpening.

55
There are some occasions when we should use
singular verbs.

Expressions such as each of, one of, anybody, each, every

and nobody must be followed by a singular verb.

E.g.
• Each of the ladies has a designer handbag.
• Anybody is allowed to enter this hall.
• Nobody is disappointed with the results.

A singular subject with attached phrases introduced by with

or like or as well as is followed by a singular verb.

E.g.
• The boy, along with several others, was late for school.
• Meiling, like Johan, is tall for her age.
• Tom, as well as Fred, is on the first shift.

Two singular nouns or pronouns separated by either ... or or

neither ... nor take a singular verb.

E.g.
• Either he or she has eaten the cake.
•  either Meera nor Gopal knows anything about
N
the accident.

56
Amounts, even if plural, use a singular verb.

E.g.
• Sixty dollars is too much to pay for that dress.
• Ten kilometres is too long a distance for me to walk.
• F ive kilogrammes of flour is all that I need for
my baking.

There are some occasions when we should use plural verbs.

When two or more plural subjects are connected by and, the
verb is plural.

E.g.
• The officers and his men were patrolling the area.
•  omestic cats and dogs need adequate
D
care and attention.

Plural subjects separated by either ... or or neither ... nor,

both ... and, and all but take a plural verb.

E.g.
• Either the boys or the girls are to blame.
• Neither the contestants nor the audience were
aware of the fire.
• All but Sam are going to the cinema.
Both the twins and their parents are attending
• 
their graduation ceremony.

57
Another problem that users of English face is this: does the
verb in a sentence agree with the noun before it (the subject)
or the noun after it (the subject complement)?

The answer is that it should agree with the subject – the noun
before it.

E.g.
• 
The thing (subject) we need at this moment is (verb)
more eggs.
• 
The greatest benefit (subject) is (verb) the
opportunities presented to our staff.

58
 Prepositions

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship

between an object – a noun or pronoun – and other
words in a sentence.

Memorise how prepositions should be used. There is

no easy way out. Our notes here may help too!
The preposition is placed before a noun or pronoun. It shows
the relationship between nouns and pronouns in the same
sentence. It may be used to indicate position, place,
direction or time.

Prepositions of Position

With regard to place, in tends to be used with larger or

enclosed areas such as cities, countries and tunnels, whereas
at tends to be used for smaller places, points on a journey, or
for activities typically associated with a place.

E.g.
The couple will spend their money in London.
• 
(large area)
Their train stops at London Paddington.
• 
(point on a journey)
The boys are running around in the library.
• 
(enclosed area)
They boys are at the library, reading. (reading is
• 
associated with libraries)

When talking about heights or levels, we use below, over

or under.

E.g.
• The dog is sleeping under the bed.
• The plane flew over the hills.

60
Prepositions of Direction

These prepositions indicate a movement towards a goal.

E.g.
• Let’s go to the market.
• The swimmers walked into the sea.
• The students eagerly ran towards the campsite.

Prepositions of Time

On is used for days and dates.

E.g.
• The wedding will be on Saturday.

At is used to indicate a specific time.

E.g.
• I’ll see you at six o’clock.

61
From ... to and during are used to indicate a period of time.

E.g.
• The tulip festival is from March to May.
•  uring the school holidays, students engage in
D
community projects.

Other prepositions indicating time are before, until, after,

since and by.

E.g.
• My wife exercises before breakfast.
• You can visit her after office hours.
• You must submit the forms by 1st July.
•  ntil now, I’ve always thought that she was a
U
meticulous officer.
She has been making a lot of progress since she
• 
started her exercise programme.

62
Troublesome Prepositions

There are times when we are unsure which preposition we

should use. These are some troublesome prepositions.

Beside and Besides

Beside means “next to”.

E.g.
• She sits beside me in the office.

Besides means “other than” or “apart from”.

E.g.
Besides enjoying cooking, I like reading a book
• 
when I’m free.

Between and Among

Between is used when referring to two people,

places or things.

Among is used for three or more people, places or things.

E.g.
• Divide the cake among the five of you.
• The twins shared the sweets between themselves.

63
‘Differ with’ and ‘Differ from’

When you differ with someone, you disagree with that

person’s opinion or idea.

When you differ from someone, it means that you are unlike
that person.

E.g.
• The form teacher differed with the English teacher on
the boy’s abilities.
Mr Chan differed from his predecessor in terms of
• 
management style.

64
Sometimes you may find it hard to decide which preposition
you should use with a word.

This is a list to help you.

• according to
• angry with
• ashamed of
• bored with (something)
• comment on
• disagree with
• disappointed in (something)
• disappointed with (somebody)
• disgusted at (something)
• disgusted with (somebody)
• pride oneself on (something)
• protest against
• rely on
• similar to
• write about (something)
• write to (somebody)

65
Phrasal verbs – verbs used with a preposition or adverb.
Phrasal verbs are never hyphenated.

• back away – t o retreat

• back down – retract or withdraw
(from a position or argument)
• back out – fail to keep an agreement
• back up – make a copy of computer data
• back (someone) up – to support someone
• fall apart – b
 reak into pieces (literally) or become
emotionally disturbed (figuratively)
• fall behind – make little progress
• fall out – have a bad relationship with someone
• (something) fall through – be unsuccessful
• get across – communicate successfully
• get ahead – make progress
• get along – have a good relationship with someone
• get around to – f inally manage to do something
• get back at – take revenge
• put across – communicate
• put (someone) down – c
 riticise or humiliate
• put forward – suggest or nominate
• put up – allow someone to stay at your house for a
few days
• put up with – tolerate

66
 Adverbs

An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives, adverbs

and prepositions.
While adjectives tell you more about a noun or pronoun,
adverbs may do the same for verbs. Adverbs tell you, among
other things, how (manner), when (time) or where (place) an
action took place.

E.g.
• She sang beautifully. (manner)
• She came early for the interview. (time)
• I stayed here when I visited Hanoi. (place)

Some adverbs also moderate or intensify adjectives or

other adverbs.

E.g.
 • That was an extremely entertaining performance.
• I wouldn’t recommend it. It was a very bad show.
• I went to the market rather early on Saturday.
• She danced remarkably well.

68
Possible Positions of Adverbs in a Sentence

At the beginning of a sentence (usually to emphasise a point).

• Finally, we found our way back to the camp.

In the middle of a sentence.

• The philanthropist rarely reveals his identity when he

makes his donations.

At the end of a sentence, after a verb.

• She screamed loudly.

Adverbs may be categorised into the following classes:

Manner : gracefully, sadly, slowly, well

Time : before, now, since, eventually
Place : here, there, everywhere, nowhere
Degree : almost, quite, very, rather
Number : once, twice
Interrogative : where, when, how, why

69
Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner tell you the way an action is performed.

They answer the question how? Usually, the adverb follows
the verb.

E.g.
• T he students cheered enthusiastically when they
were told that they were getting a holiday.

Sometimes, the adverb is placed before the verb to

emphasise the manner of the action.

E.g.
• He deliberately tripped the rude boy.
• She suddenly appeared out of nowhere.

Although many adverbs of manner end in -ly, not all do.

E.g.
• She’s trying hard to impress the judges.

70
Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of time answer the questions when? how long?

and how often?

E.g.
• Lunch will be ready soon.
• 
Jenny visited us twice last year but we haven’t seen
her since.
• Harold rarely visits his grandparents.

71
Possible Positions of Adverbs of Time in
a Sentence

At the beginning of the sentence, usually for emphasis.

E.g.
•  rankly, the job is not worth doing for the
F
money alone.

After the verb or at the end of a sentence.

E.g.
• The school looked very different then.

Before the verb.

E.g.
• The neighbours now realise what had happened.

72
Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of degree answer the question how much? or to

what extent? They increase or reduce the force of the word
they describe.

They are usually used with adjectives and are placed before
the adjective that they describe.

E.g.
• The students put up a totally entertaining performance.

They are used with other adverbs and are placed before the
adverb they describe.

E.g.
• The young man walked incredibly slowly.

When used with verbs, they come before the verb.

E.g.
• The audience absolutely hated the show.

73
Adverbs are used to indicate comparison in the same way
as adjectives. They generally form the comparative or
superlative by adding more and most to the positive adverb.

Posi tive Compara tive Su per la tive

early earlier earliest

long longer longest

bravely more bravely most bravely

carefully more carefully most carefully

greedily more greedily most greedily

Exceptions:

Posi tive Compara tive Su per la tive

badly worse worst

well better best

74
Using Adjectives as Adverbs

Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. Using adjectives

(rather than adverbs) to modify verbs, adverbs or other
adjectives is informal, and regarded by some grammarians
as incorrect.

E.g.
• He behaves strange. (Informal)
• He behaves strangely. (Formal)
• After a few lessons Tom sang real well.
(Informal)
• 
After a few lessons Tom sang really well.
(Formal)

75
Now test yourself!
How well do you know your adverbs?

Re-write the following sentences so that they are

grammatically correct.

1. The team played good.

2. The tiger stalked its prey slow and quiet.

3. It’s rude to talk so loud on the bus.

76
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate adverb. Use the words
in the box to fill in the blanks.

shabbily rarely slightly firmly surprisingly recently frantically

4. , when I was in Bangkok on a business trip,

I had a strange experience. A frail-looking Thai girl, dressed

5. in a torn dress, came up to me. Thinking that

she was just another beggar, I took a coin from my pocket

and gave it to her. However, she took no interest in it. She

placed her grubby hands 6. on my briefcase.

When I tried to remove her hand, she said something

7. in Thai. I was 8. annoyed by her.

She then pointed to a street food vendor and urged me to

buy her some food. I 9. pay attention to street

children but 10. I found myself getting her

some food.

77
ANSWERS

1. The team played good. (good is an adjective)

Amended: The team played well.
(The adverb well modifies the verb played.)

2. The tiger stalked its prey slow and quiet.

(slow and quiet are adjectives)
Amended: The tiger stalked its prey slowly and quietly.
(The adverbs slowly and quietly modify the verb stalked.)

3. It’s rude to talk so loud on the bus.

(loud is an adjective)
Amended: It’s rude to talk so loudly on the bus.
(The adverb loudly modifies the verb talk.)

4. Recently

5. shabbily

6. firmly

7. frantically

8. slightly

9. rarely

10. surprisingly

78
 Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that connects similar words or group

of words such as phrases, clauses and sentences.
C ONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are connectors that link words, phrases, clauses

or sentences. There are two main types of conjunctions:
coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions join equivalent word classes,

phrases or clauses. Joined words and phrases should be
of the same class or type, and joined clauses should be
main clauses.

Coordination can take place between two or more

main clauses.

E.g.
• 
Emily went to see a doctor and was given two days’
medical leave but went to work anyway.

80
The main coordinating conjunctions are and, but and or.

Conjunctions are useful as they help avoid unnecessary

repetition of words or phrases.

E.g.
• It is a small kitchen. It is a practical kitchen.
→ It is a small but practical kitchen.
• John will inform you of the results. John’s assistant will
inform you of the results.
→ John or his assistant will inform you of the results.
• They gave their opinions. I gave my opinions.
→ They gave their opinions and I gave mine.

Coordinating conjunctions may be used in several ways.

81
Addition

The conjunction and connects words and phrases that are

linked in some way.

E.g.
Sam and I will not be attending the meeting.
• 

The conjunctions both … and are used as a pair

for emphasis.

E.g.
• Both the girls and I were eager to participate in
the competition.

82
Contrast

The conjunctions but, though and yet link words, phrases

or clauses that have contrasting meanings. In the case of
clauses containing a contrasting idea, whereas and while
are used.

E.g.
• Slowly but surely the ancient temple was
painstakingly rebuilt.
• Jane, though looking better, is still feeling
weak after the operation.
• Alex ate too much at the buffet lunch, yet
he could not resist the cake and coffee
teatime deal.
• Mrs Gopal is firm with her students, whereas
Mrs Chan tends to be more lenient.
•  hile Stanley tended the garden, his wife
W
baked a cake.

83
A Choice or Alternative

You use the conjunction or to link words, phrases or clauses

that present a choice or alternative.

E.g.
• Would you like to have dinner now or later?
• I’ll contact you by phone or email.

The pairs either … or and neither … nor are used to lend

greater emphasis to the alternatives.

E.g.
• Neither the boys nor Sally believes her story.
• Either Meiling or Sharon is going to the airport today.

84
Cause and Effect

The coordinating conjunctions so and therefore link a cause

to its effect.

E.g.
•  e had worked hard, so his success was
H
not unexpected.
• T hey heard the announcement on the radio and
therefore took another route to avoid the traffic jam.

Unlike coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions

join an independent clause to a dependent clause.

The dependent clause cannot stand on its own and often

does not make sense without the main clause.

Most subordinating conjunctions are single words, e.g.

although, as, because, since, when.

E.g.
•  lthough the journey to the disaster site is difficult,
A
the volunteers want to continue to support the project.
Since they refused to obey the school rules, the boys
• 
were suspended from school for a week.
• Sarah was waiting for the bus to arrive when she fell.

85
However, some subordinating conjunctions consist more than
one word, e.g. except for, as long as, even if.

E.g.
• Except for Jane, all are expected at the lunch.
She will be allowed to keep her pet as long as she
• 
looks after it well.
• Even if he gives me a lift, I am not going to the funfair.

These are some subordinating conjunctions that convey the

following ideas:

Cause : since, because, so that

Concession and Comparison :  although, as though,
even though
Condition : even if, unless
Place : where, wherever
Time : after, as soon as, whenever

86
Correlative Conjunctions

Some conjunctions combine with other words to form

correlative conjunctions. They appear together, joining
various sentence elements that should be treated as
grammatically equal.

Some examples are both…and; not only, but also; either …

or/neither … nor; whether … or.

Whether you win or lose this competition is not the

• 
issue; it’s how hard you’ve tried.

Using “like” as a Conjunction.

Although like is often used as a conjunction, this is regarded

as rather informal and should be avoided in formal writing.

E.g.
• He doesn’t go out like he used to. (informal)
• He doesn’t go out the way he used to. (formal)

Instead of “Like I told you yesterday, we aren’t going to the

zoo today”, say “As I told you yesterday, we aren’t going to
the zoo today”.

Instead of “It looks like it’s going to rain”, say “It looks as if it’s
going to rain”.

87
Misuse of “either … or”

This construction presents a choice between two alternatives.

However, the two alternatives should belong to the same
word class.

E.g.
• We can go to either Bangkok or Bali for our vacation
this year. (Both are nouns.)
• They can eat either now or after the show.
(Both are adverbs.)

Sometimes either is placed in an incorrect position.

E.g.
• S he can take either the exam or ask to be
interviewed. (One is a noun – exam – and the other is
a verb – ask.)

The correct phrasing should be: She can either take the
exam or ask to be interviewed. (Both are verbs.)

88
Misuse of “due to”

Due to is often used in place of because of or as a result of.

However, the correct way to use it is when it follows a noun
or pronoun, i.e., in a sentence structure such as “something
is due to...”.

Therefore, the sentence below is incorrect:

Our departure was delayed due to bad weather.
• 

It should be recast as:

• The delay in our departure was due to bad weather.

89
Now test yourself!
How well do you know your conjunctions?

Incorrect conjunctions have been used in the sentences

below. Choose the correct conjunction from the box to
correct each sentence.

but so as or although until if unless and whereas

1. Vast forests of trees used to cover the mountain slopes,

and many of them have been cleared for roads.

2. The old lady spoke to them in a soft but gentle voice.

3. Are we going to walk and take the bus to town?

4. It was getting late, while I decided to take a taxi.

5. Joyce enjoys listening to pop songs, and her husband

prefers classical music.

6. While it was raining, we decided to cancel our plans to

visit the zoo.

7. Unless you do not try, you will not succeed.

8. Unless James knows he’s wrong, he won’t admit it.

9. Wait when your mother comes back.

10. She won’t go to the party before she gets a lift from
a friend.

90
ANSWERS

1. Vast forests of trees used to cover the mountain slopes,

but many of them have been cleared for roads.
– but introduces a contrary idea. The trees used to cover
the mountain slopes but no longer do so.

2. The old lady spoke to them in a soft and gentle voice.

– and provides a similar positive aspect of the old
lady’s voice.

3. Are we going to walk or take the bus to town?

– or indicates the choices available to the speaker
and his friend/s.

4. It was getting late, so I decided to take a taxi.

– so indicates a consequence of the preceding clause.

5. Joyce enjoys listening to pop songs, whereas her

husband prefers classical music.
– whereas introduces a clause that has a
contrasting idea.

91
6. As it was raining, we decided to cancel our plans to
visit the zoo.
– As suggests that the clause provides a reason.

If you do not try, you will not succeed.

7. 
– If indicates a likely possibility or condition.

8. Although James knows he’s wrong, he won’t admit it.

– Although expresses a concession, that there is
something positive and negative in the same sentence.

9. Wait until your mother comes back.

– until indicates a specific time.

10. She won’t go to the party unless she gets a lift from
a friend.
– unless indicates a condition.

92
 Common
Errors

Here is a list of common errors, with suggested correct versions.

Incorrect: He don’t care about me anymore.
Correct: He doesn’t care about me anymore.

Incorrect: I am not speaking to nobody here.

Correct: I am not speaking to anybody here.

Incorrect: To gain insights on the matter.

Correct: To gain insights into the matter.

Incorrect: Irregardless of what she said, he should not have

punched her.
Correct: Regardless of what she said, he should not have
punched her.

Incorrect: Can you borrow/loan me $2?

Correct: Can you lend me $2? May I borrow $2?

Incorrect: He plays computer games everyday.

Correct: He plays computer games every day.

Incorrect: I prefer green tea more than English tea.

Correct: I prefer green tea to English tea.

Incorrect: On hindsight, I should have attended

that meeting.
Correct: In hindsight, I should have attended
that meeting.

Incorrect: He stayed at Indonesia for a week.

Correct: He stayed in Indonesia for a week.

94
Incorrect: The fire alarm has gone on again.
Correct: The fire alarm has gone off again.

Incorrect: He emphasised on the importance of being

punctual for meetings.
Correct: He emphasised the importance of being
punctual for meetings.

Incorrect: The commander stressed on the importance of

being fit.
Correct: The commander stressed the importance of
being fit.

Incorrect: He travelled between 1 January to 10 January.

Correct: He travelled between 1 January and 10 January.

Incorrect: Divide the chocolates among the two of you.

Correct: Divide the chocolates between the two of you.

Incorrect: He smoked despite the continuous warnings of

his Principal.
Correct: He smoked despite the continual warnings of
his Principal.

Incorrect: Help arrived just on time.

Correct: Help arrived just in time.

Incorrect: Do you have sometime to check this?

Correct: Do you have some time to check this?

95
Incorrect: This phone costs a hundred over dollars.
Correct: This phone costs over a hundred dollars.

Incorrect: This chocolate bar comprises of nuts.

Correct: This chocolate bar comprises nuts.

Incorrect: Here is the details of the meeting.

Correct: Here are the details of the meeting.

Incorrect: What does it comes with?

Correct: What does it come with?

Incorrect: It doesn’t makes sense.

Correct: It doesn’t make sense.

Incorrect: He look very serious.

Correct: He looks very serious.

Incorrect: She always say I very lazy.

Correct: She always says that I am very lazy.

Incorrect: The place I’ve been to are all in Asia.

Correct: The places I’ve been to are all in Asia.

Incorrect: My three weeks experience in catering ...

Correct: My three-week experience in catering ...

Incorrect: I eat fish yesterday.

Correct: I ate fish yesterday.

96
Incorrect: What happen yesterday?
Correct: What happened yesterday?

Incorrect: I see you last week.

Correct: I saw you last week.

Incorrect: How much you willing to let go?

Correct: How much are you willing to sell it for?

Incorrect: I want to talk on this problem.

Correct: I want to talk about this problem.

Incorrect: In my personal opinion ...

Correct: In my opinion ...

Incorrect: My fellow colleague will attend to you.

Correct: My colleague will attend to you.

Incorrect: I am concern about his health.

Correct: I am concerned about his health.

97
Incorrect: Please on/off the power.
Correct: Please turn the power on/off.

Incorrect: Please open/close the light.

Correct: Please turn (or switch) on/off the light.

Incorrect: With regards to the matter, I think ...

Correct: With regard to the matter, I think ...

Incorrect: He scored 8 upon 10 for the

Math test.
Correct: He scored 8 out of 10 for the
Math test.

Incorrect: Eric wants to apply leave

next week.
Correct: Eric wants to apply for leave
next week.

Incorrect: I feedback to her.

Correct: I gave her feedback.

Incorrect: Please revert to me as soon

as possible.
Correct: Please reply as soon as possible.

However, using revert to mean “reply to” is common in some

varieties of English, e.g. Indian English.

98
Incorrect: Today is my off day. [An off day is
a day when things don’t go well
for you]
Correct: Today is my day off.

Incorrect: Please give me lesser salt.

Correct: Please give me less salt.

Less is used with uncountable nouns; few is used with

countable nouns. Lesser is an adjective meaning “not as
great in size, amount or importance” (Oxford) and is a
synonym for words such as “inferior” and “poorer”.

Incorrect: The shop is opened from 10am

to 8pm.
Correct: The shop is open from 10am
to 8pm.

Incorrect: You have key in an

invalid password.
Correct: You have keyed in an
invalid password.

Incorrect: You are entitle to discount.

Correct: You are entitled to a discount.

Incorrect: I will fetch the kids to school.

Correct: I will take the kids to school.

99
Incorrect: From the SLE, you exit out at Yishun.
Correct: From the SLE, you exit at Yishun.

Incorrect: I need to draw money from the ATM.

Correct: I need to withdraw money from
the ATM.

Incorrect: To make it more clearer, I will rewrite the proposal.

[More is redundant]
Correct: To make it clearer, I will rewrite
the proposal.

Incorrect: I will reprint the document again.

[Again is redundant]
Correct: I will reprint the document.

Incorrect: Please repeat your question again.

[Again is redundant]
Correct: Please repeat your question.

Incorrect: I like blue colour bags.

[Colour is redundant]
Correct: I like blue bags.

Incorrect: He is big in size. [In size is redundant]

Correct: He is big.

100
Incorrect: I will return back the files to you later. [Back is
redundant]
Correct: I will return the files to you later.

Incorrect: We discussed about this during the meeting.

[About is redundant]
Correct: We discussed this during the meeting.

Incorrect: I didn’t include it in. [In is redundant]

Correct: I didn’t include it.

Incorrect: Let me separate them out.

[Out is redundant]
Correct: Let me separate them.

Incorrect: The manager emphasised on the importance of

exercising regularly.
(On is not necessary)
Correct: The manager emphasised the importance of
exercising regularly.

101
The Speak Good English Movement recommends
these resources:

www.goodenglish.org.sg
www.grammaropolis.com
www.quickanddirtytips.com/grammar-girl