Strengthening of Concrete Structures - 230117 - 084926

Amr Abdelrahman
Strengthening
of Concrete
Structures
Unified Design Approach, Numerical
Examples and Case Studies
Strengthening of Concrete Structures
Amr Abdelrahman
Strengthening of Concrete
Structures
Unified Design Approach, Numerical
Examples and Case Studies
Amr Abdelrahman
Faculty of Engineering
Ain Shams University
Cairo, Egypt
ISBN 978-981-19-8075-6 ISBN 978-981-19-8076-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8076-3
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About This Book
This book presents unified design approach for strengthening concrete members with
different techniques such as concrete, steel and FRP jacketing. Preference between
the various techniques is explained in light of strengthening limits, procedures, and
application for each case. Examples for evaluation of existing structures and design
equations for strengthening concrete elements are presented based on the ACI design
codes and standards. Numerical examples are also given for different strengthening
techniques with illustrations for the construction methodology and detailing for each
case.
Several case studies are explained starting from problem diagnosis, structure anal-
ysis, proposal for different strengthening methodologies and implementation proce-
dure for the selected scheme. The case studies include structures subjected to gravity
loads, lateral loads, elevated temperature and differential settlement of the foun-
dations. It addresses design and construction errors, environmental impact and soil
movement. The case studies include conventional reinforced concrete, post-tensioned
and precast concrete members.
v
Contents
1 Evaluation of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Properties of Strengthening Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Concrete Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1.1 Time Dependent Behavior of Concrete . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Reinforcement Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2.1 Time Dependent Behavior
of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Concrete Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Calculation of In-Situ Concrete Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 Interpretation of Core Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1.1 Method 1: Tolerance Factor Approach . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1.2 Method 2: Alternate Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Structure Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.1 Relative Stiffness Between Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.2 Construction Sequence of Rehabilitation Works . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.3 Concrete Members Subjected to Volume Change . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.4 Connections Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.5 Uncertainty of the Physical Properties of Concrete
Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.6 Archaic Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5 Design Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5.1 Safety Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5.2 Maximum Strengthening Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.6 Case Study 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6.1 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.6.2 Strengthening Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6.3 PT Slab Remedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.7 Case Study 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.7.1 Problem Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.7.2 Concrete Slab Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
vii
viii Contents
2 Strengthening of Concrete Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.1 Column Jacketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1.1 Concrete Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.1.1.1 Construction of Concrete Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1.1.2 Material Properties of the Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1.2 Steel Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1.3 FRP Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.3.1 Enhancement of Column Axial Capacity
with FRP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.1.3.2 FRP Strengthening of Columns with Partial
Tensile Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2 Design of Jacketed Column Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.1 Columns Subjected to Axial Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.2 Columns Subjected to Axial Load and Bending
Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2.3 Calculation of Confined Concrete Compressive Stress . . . . 52
2.3 Unified Design Method for Columns’ Jackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.1 Circular Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3.2 Rectangular Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.3.2.1 Calculation of the Confining Pressure
in Rectangular Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.3.2.2 Parameters Affecting the Confining
Pressure in Rectangular Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.4 Stress Limits Design Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.5 Columns Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.6 Case Study 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.6.1 Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.6.2 Concrete Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3 Beam Strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.1 Concrete Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.1.1 Reinforced Concrete Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.1.2 Prestressed Concrete Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2 Steel Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.3 FRP Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4 Strength Capacity of Jacketed Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4.1 Flexural Strength of Strengthened Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.5 Calculation of Shear Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.6 Shear Strengthening of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.7 Bond and Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.8 Serviceability of Strengthened Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.9 Corbel Strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.10 Case Study 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Contents ix
4 Slab Strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

4.1 Concrete Overlay for Slab Strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2 External Reinforcement for Slab Strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3 Adding Structural Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3.1 Lifting Concrete Slabs Before Strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.4 Prestressing Flat Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.5 Punching Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.5.1 Slab Strengthening by Columns Caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.5.2 Punching Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.6 Balcony Strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.7 Openings in Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.8 Case Study 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.8.2 Retrofitting Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.9 Case Study 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.9.1 Strengthening Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5 Sub-structure Strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1 Strengthening of Shallow Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.1.1 Conversion of Shallow to Deep Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.1.2 Foundations Underpinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.1.3 Use of Concrete Caissons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.2 Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3 Case Study 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.3.2 Punching Shear Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.3.3 Proposed Retrofitting Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.4 Case Study 5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.4.1 Problem Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.4.2 Proposed Strengthening Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.1 Case Study 6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.1.1 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.1.2 Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.1.3 Strengthening Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2 Case Study 6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2.1 Strengthening Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.3 Case Study 6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.3.1 Strengthening Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.4 Case Study 6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.4.1 Retrofitting Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
About the Author
Dr. Amr Abdelrahman is Professor of Concrete Struc-

tures and former chairman of the Structural Engineering
Department (2014–2020), Ain Shams University, Cairo,
Egypt. He is a member in the following Egyptian
Codes; Design and Construction of Concrete Structures,
Design and Application of Fiber Reinforced Polymers
in Construction (Vice Chair), Strengthening of Concrete
Structures, and Planning, Design and Construction of
Bridges and Highways. He is a Fellow of the Egyp-
tian Society of Engineers and a member in the standing
committee of the Arab Code for Design of Bridges.
The author has several technical publications and
supervised graduate students. He is also a consultant
engineer and the founder of “AACE Consultant Engi-
neers Office”, who participated in the design of several
projects in the Middle East. He has more than 36 years of
experience working in the field of design of reinforced
and prestressed concrete structures and strengthening of
concrete structures.
xi
Chapter 1
Evaluation of Concrete Structures
Structures are built to serve a certain function efficiently without deviation on the
designed performance throughout its lifetime. While the structure is at service, it
should perform well structurally, aesthetically and environmentally as well as it
should fulfill all the requirements imposed by the design codes, standards and regu-
latory authorities. At any observed deviation of the structure performance, measures
should be taken to protect, mitigate or improve the current condition, while the deci-
sion shall be based on technical assessment given by expert engineers addressing the
need for immediate action, methodology of remedial action in addition to the cost.
The action should consider the sequences of interruption of the structure use during
implementation since it is a major element in the decision.
Rehabilitation of concrete structures is employed, where repair and strength-
ening of concrete members aim at improving the structural capacity or behavior to
recover the originally designed performance, (repair), or to upgrade the concrete
member to satisfy higher requirements, (strengthening). The rehabilitation may be
also required to satisfy higher seismic performance, (retrofit). The rehabilitation starts
by evaluation of concrete structures to understand the deficiencies and most impor-
tant the reasons for these deficiencies. The evaluation aims also at determining the
requirements for upgrade whether to increase the current strength or to improve the
serviceability, or obviously to provide enough safety factor for the structure stability.
Selecting the right material for rehabilitation is the success key for long-lasting satis-
factory performance, accompanied by proper design and application of the strength-
ening scheme. Protection of concrete members intends to provide a second line of
defense against the severe exposure to environmental conditions and/or misuse. In
some cases, monitoring of the rehabilitated members is followed to provide informa-
tion about any distress or deterioration that is unlikely to happen after the engineered
implementation of rehabilitation. Maintenance of concrete structures, not only for
the rehabilitated members but also for other structural members, is scheduled after
periodic inspection to maintain the good performance and detect any shortcomings
that may affect the structure lifespan.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 1
A. Abdelrahman, Strengthening of Concrete Structures,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8076-3_1
2 1 Evaluation of Concrete Structures
In general, satisfactory performance of the structure during its lifetime is an accept-

able indicator of adequate safety in case that the structure has been subjected to known
loads and environmental conditions.
1.1 Properties of Strengthening Materials
Different materials are nominated to be used in strengthening concrete members,

while material selection should be based on many factors including compatibility
with concrete, strength, constructability, resistance to environmental conditions,
aesthetics and cost. Among several materials, concrete, steel and fiber reinforced
polymers, (FRP), are the commonly used materials in strengthening existing concrete
structures. Different strengthening techniques may be applied; yet, unified design
approach still can be adopted while understanding the differences between mate-
rials in the mechanical properties and resistance to environmental conditions. The
following sections describe the characteristics of each material, which has a direct
impact on the strengthening design.
1.1.1 Concrete Characteristics
Concrete is the most used construction material worldwide due to its strength,
durability and availability with different properties that can be tailored to suit a
certain application. Normal and lightweight concrete, self-consolidated concrete,
high-performance concrete, fiber reinforced concrete and shotcrete are available with
large spectrum of strength, stiffness and properties while fresh or hardened. Figure 1.1
shows the stress–strain behavior of different types of concrete under uniaxial state
of compression stress. In general, ductility of the fiber concrete is larger than that of
the normal weight and self-consolidated concrete (Naaman 2017).
The concrete compressive stress is increased when subjected to triaxial state of
compression stresses, where it can be presented with the model given in Eq. (1.1)
(Park and Paulay 1975).
f cc' = f c' + k f l (1.1)
where “f ’ cc ” is the concrete compressive strength under triaxial state of stress, “k”
is a factor that may range between 4.1 and 10, and “f l ” is the lateral compressive
stress.
1.1 Properties of Strengthening Materials 3
90.0 Normal weight

concrete
80.0 Self-consolidated
concrete
70.0 Fiber concrete
Concrete stress (MPa)
60.0
50.0
Fiber
concrete
40.0
30.0
20.0
Self-consolidated
10.0 concrete
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006

Concrete strain
Fig. 1.1 Stress–strain of concrete in compression
1.1.1.1 Time Dependent Behavior of Concrete
The time dependent behavior of concrete is dominated by the dimensional variations

due to creep and shrinkage. Creep of concrete occurs due to sustained loading, as the
compressive strain increases with time while the compressive stress producing the
strain is constant. Creep is usually considered in the design by modifying the elastic
modulus using a creep coefficient, “φ”, which depends on age at loading, size of the
member and ambient conditions, in particular relative humidity. A typical behavior
is that the concrete elastic modulus is reduced by time due to creep as expressed in
Eq. (1.2).
E c (to )
E c (t,to ) = (1.2)
1 + φ(t,to )
where φ (t, t 0 ) is a dimensionless creep coefficient, “t o ” is the age at loading, “t” is

the age at which the strain is calculated, E c (t o ) and E c (t, t o ) are the concrete elastic
moduli at time “t o ” and “t”.
It should be noted that the coefficient “φ” represents the ratio of creep to the
instantaneous strain, as shown in Fig. 1.2; its value increases with the decrease of
age at loading “t o ” and the increase of the length of the period (t − t o ) during which
the stress is sustained. When, for example, “t o ” is one month and “t” infinity, the creep
coefficient may be between 2 and 4 depending on the quality of concrete, the ambient
temperature and humidity as well as the dimensions of the element considered.
Fig. 1.2 Creep and shrinkage of concrete
Drying of concrete in air results in shrinkage, and if the change in volume is

restrained, stresses develop. In reinforced concrete structures, the restraint may be
caused by the reinforcing steel, by the supports or by the difference in volume change
of various parts of the structure. Shrinkage starts to develop at time “t s ” when moist
curing stops, as shown in Fig. 1.2. The strain that develops due to free shrinkage
between “t s ” and a later instant “t” may be expressed as in Eq. (1.3).
εcs (t,ts ) = εcs0 βs (t − ts ) (1.3)
where “εcs ” is the free (unrestrained) strain due to shrinkage, “εcs0 ” is the total
shrinkage that occurs after concrete hardening up to time infinity, where it depends
upon the quality of concrete and the ambient air humidity. The function β s (t − t s )
depends upon the size and shape of the element considered. The free shrinkage, εcs
(t 2 , t 1 ) occurring between any two instants “t 1 ” and “t 2 ” can be determined as the
difference between the two values obtained by Eq. (1.3), substituting “t 2 ” and “t 1 ”
for “t”.
Stresses caused by shrinkage are generally reduced by the effect of creep of
concrete (Ghali and Favre 1986); thus, the effects of these two phenomena must be
considered in the analysis. Creep and shrinkage effects may be greater in prestressed
1.1 Properties of Strengthening Materials 5
than in non-prestressed concrete structures because of the prestressing forces and

because prestressed structures typically have less bonded reinforcement.
Volume variation also occurs under the effect of change in the ambient tempera-
ture, where concrete expands and contracts with the temperature rise and fall. Temper-
ature changes may be also caused by cement hydration at early age of concrete.
Concrete coefficient of thermal expansion ranges from (8–12) × 10–6 /°C with an
average value of 10 × 10–6 /°C. This coefficient varies primarily with aggregate type
(limestone, siliceous gravel, granite, etc.); other factors also affect the coefficient
of thermal expansions such as cementitious material content, water-to-cement ratio,
concrete age and relative humidity.
1.1.2 Reinforcement Characteristics
Different types of reinforcements are used to strengthen concrete members, where it

carries axial forces induced either from external loads or due to volume change
of concrete. The most commonly used reinforcements are prestressed and non-
prestressed steel reinforcement as well as carbon- and glass-fiber reinforced poly-
mers, (CFRP and GFRP). Besides that it does not corrode, FRP reinforcement is
characterized by its high strength-to-weight ratio, where its strength is up to 1.5
times the strength of the prestressing steel and its weight is about 20–25% that of
steel, which makes its installation easy and fast. FRP reinforcement is a composite
material made of fibers bound together with resin such as epoxy or vinylester. Other
materials such as aramid and basalt FRP, micro-composite multi-structural formable
steel, (MMFX) and stainless steel can be also used as reinforcement provided that
its properties, bond characteristics and durability are well known. Understanding the
reinforcement behavior is essential to properly design the strengthening scheme of
concrete members.
The stress–strain behavior of commonly used reinforcements is given in Fig. 1.3.
The prestressed and non-prestressed steel reinforcement have the same elastic
modulus (195–210 GPa); however, the ultimate strain is much less for the prestressing
steel, where it ranges between 3.5 and 4% compared to more than 10% for the non-
prestressed steel. The ultimate tensile strength of the seven-wire prestressing steel
ranges between 1770 and 1860 MPa.
Major difference exists between the tensile behavior of steel and FRP, where yield
plateau exists for steel while linear brittle behavior exists for the FRP material. The
tensile strength of the CFRP and GFRP is higher than that of the non-prestressed
steel. The elastic modulus of the CFRP strips and high-modulus CFRP sheets are
close to that of the steel (165–230 GPa), while it is much lower for GFRP. Normal-
modulus CFRP sheets (using laminate properties) have much lower elastic modulus
compared to steel (around 60–65 GPa). Unlike steel, FRP reinforcement has no
universal standards in terms of shape, where it may be produced in circular bars with
varying diameters, or laminates as rectangular strips (1.0–1.4 mm) or thin sheets
(0.1 mm and more), as shown in Fig. 1.4. Nominal dimensions and surface roughness
CFRP
2700
2400
2100
Prestressing steel
1800
Stress (MPa)
1500
1200 GFRP
900
600 Non-prestressed steel
300
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Strain
Fig. 1.3 Idealized tensile stress–strain behavior of different reinforcements
are also not unified, where smooth, indented and sand-coated surface are used for the
FRP bar reinforcement. Therefore, bond characteristics of FRP bar reinforcements
should be identified for each product individually. The rectangular strips are made
of unidirectional fibers, while the sheets may be made of uni- or multi-directional
fibers. FRP sheets are normally used as externally bonded reinforcement for concrete
elements, where epoxy is usually used to adhere the laminates to the concrete surface.
Fig. 1.4 Different shapes of FRP reinforcement

1.2 Concrete Evaluation 7
1.1.2.1 Time Dependent Behavior of Reinforcement
Tension force in the prestressing steel is reduced by time due to relaxation, which is
defined as the loss in axial stress under constant strain. The time-dependent losses
change with the type of prestressing steel and increase with the increase of the initial
stress in the tendon. Unlike prestressing steel, FRP may experience creep rupture
by time. When FRP materials are subjected to a sustained load, it can suddenly fail
after a time period referred to as the endurance time. As the ratio of the sustained
tensile stress to the short-term strength of the FRP reinforcement increases, endurance
time decreases. The endurance time also decreases under adverse environmental
conditions, such as high temperature, UV radiation exposure, high alkalinity, wet
and dry cycles, or freezing-and-thawing cycles. In general, carbon fibers are the least
susceptible to creep rupture, aramid fibers are moderately susceptible, and glass fibers
are most susceptible.
To avoid creep rupture of the FRP reinforcement under sustained stresses or failure
due to cyclic stresses and fatigue of the FRP reinforcement, the stress in the FRP
reinforcement under these stress conditions should be limited. The stress in the FRP
reinforcement can be computed using elastic analysis and an applied moment due
to all sustained loads (dead loads and the sustained portion of the live load) plus the
maximum moment induced in a fatigue loading cycle. The sustained stress should
be limited as expressed in Table 1.1.
Unlike steel reinforcement, FRP is a non-isotropic material; i.e., its mechanical
and thermal properties are not the same in all directions. The axial coefficient of
thermal expansion for CFRP is −1.0 × 10–6 to 0/°C, while the transverse coefficient
of thermal expansion is much higher and may reach 50 × 10–6 /°C, since it depends on
the resin properties. The axial coefficient of thermal expansion for GFRP ranges from
6 × 10–6 to 10 × 10–6 to 0/°C, while the transverse coefficient of thermal expansion
is much higher and may reach 23 × 10–6 /°C. Steel reinforcement has a coefficient of
thermal expansion of 12 × 10–6 /°C, which is similar to that of concrete. Therefore,
steel reinforcement is compatible with concrete compared to FRP reinforcement since
there will not be induced stresses at the reinforcement interface when the concrete
member is subjected to elevated temperature.
1.2 Concrete Evaluation
Concrete evaluation is accomplished using different techniques starting from visual

inspection, concrete testing, which includes chemical composition, core test, rebound
Table 1.1 Stress limit in

Stress type Fiber type
FRP reinforcement under
sustained and cyclic loading CFRP GFRP
(ACI 440.2R-17) Sustained plus cyclic stress limit 0.55 f fu 0.20 f fu
hammer, acoustic and infrared scanning, pull-out, and testing of steel bars to measure
its tensile strength, modulus and bond with concrete. Description of the material
testing can be found elsewhere (ACI 228.1 R-19 & ACI 228.2R-13) and is out of this
book’s scope. Yet, interpretation of the test results of concrete cores is an important
step that has a great effect on the entire evaluation process and shall be discussed
later. Concrete evaluation should give a complete understanding of the physical
properties of the materials, which shall be used in the analysis of the structure.
Concrete integrity should be also assessed to identify the level of cracking for better
modeling of the relative stiffness between members. After endeavor of concrete
evaluation, understanding of the structure behavior still relies on understanding of the
expert engineer of how to model the different elements and connections to calculate
the straining actions induced from loads and restraints.
1.3 Calculation of In-Situ Concrete Compressive Strength
Core testing is the most reliable method to measure the in-situ compressive strength
of a concrete member since it involves direct compression test on samples extracted
from the members under investigation. Core testing is endorsed either for suspect
concrete in new structure or to evaluate existing structures based on the actual in-place
concrete strength. The ACI318-19 specifies that “Concrete in an area represented by
core tests shall be structurally adequate if the average of three cores is equal to at
least 85% of f’c with no single core less than 75% of f' c ”. This criterion is considered
only for new structures as an acceptance limit, which is quite different from that
recommended for the calculation of concrete strength in existing structures.
Usually, there is a large scatter between the results of core tests of the same
concrete structure, which should be carefully interpreted and statistically evaluated.
In an early study, variation of 11% from the average concrete strength of core test
results was recorded for a single batch of concrete (Bartlett and MacGregor 1996).
The large variation in concrete strength could be due to many reasons including
existence of micro-cracks, prestrain in the concrete, handling of specimens, curing
of concrete, systematic and random variation in concrete strength of one or several
batches in addition to effects of size, aspect ratio, direction of extracting the spec-
imen and moisture condition. Accordingly, the engineer may use different concrete
strengths for different zones in the structure depending on the concrete quality for
better representation of the in-situ compressive strength. These zones may be cate-
gorized after visual inspection, review of the concrete casting history or performing
rebound hammer tests on several concrete elements and grouping their results to
characterize the concrete strength in the different zones. The categorized zones may
be for different floors, or type of members, or concrete batches depending on the
level of variation in concrete strength and confidence in the quality of construction.
1.3 Calculation of In-Situ Concrete Compressive Strength 9
1.3.1 Interpretation of Core Test Results
Statistical analysis of core strength data is complicated by the large scatter of the test
results and is done only for the properly conducted tests of cores taken for each zone
with homogeneous material in the structure. In the meantime, tests with considerably
low strength should not be overlooked and the reasons for low strength should be
identified. In case that the low strength is due to defects in the in-situ concrete and
not due to error in the test procedure, measures should be taken for those members
with low compressive strength and repair of the defected member is necessary.
For evaluation of concrete structures, ACI214.4-R-10 2016 introduces two
methods for the calculation of the in-situ concrete compressive strength out of the core
test results. The calculated equivalent design strength is the lower tenth percentile of
the in-place strength and is consistent with the statistical description of the specified
strength of concrete, f ' c as per the ACI 318–19 2019.
1.3.1.1 Method 1: Tolerance Factor Approach
The mean in-place strength is obtained from Eq. (1.4), while the sample standard
deviation of the in-place strength, “sc ” is obtained from Eq. (1.5).
1∑
n
fc = f ci (1.4)
n i=1
⎡
| n
|∑ ( f ci − f c )2
sc = √ (1.5)
i=1
(n − 1)
where n is the number of cores, and f ci is the equivalent in-place strength of an

individual core specimen.
The standard deviation of the in-place strength due to the empirical nature of the
strength correction factors shall be obtained from Eq. (1.6), while the equivalent
in-place compressive strength of concrete, f c,eq , , is calculated from Eq. (1.7).
√
sa = f c Vl/d
2
+ Vdia
2
+ Vmc
2 + V2
d (1.6)
√
f c,eq = f c − (K sc )2 + (Z sa )2 (1.7)
where V l/d , V dia , V mc , V d are coefficients, depending on height-to-diameter ratio,

core diameter, moisture content and damage due to drilling, respectively. V l/d and
V dia can be estimated from Figs. 1.5 and 1.6 depending on the l/d ratio and core
diameter, respectively. V mc and V d can be taken as 0.0025, as defined in ACI 214.4
R-10.
Fig. 1.5 Variation of V l/d

with l/d ratio
Fig. 1.6 Variation of V dia

with core diameter
K and Z are factors depending on the required confidence level as depicted in

Fig. 1.7. Normally, a confidence level of 75% level is adopted for ordinary structures,
90% for important buildings and 95% for crucial components in nuclear power plants
(ACI 214.4 R-10).
1.3.1.2 Method 2: Alternate Approach
The tolerance factor approach may be conservative in practice since core tests tend
to overestimate the true variability of the in-place strengths. In the alternate approach
by ACI 214.4R-10, the equivalent specified strength is estimated using a two-step
calculation. First, a lower-bound estimate on the average in-place strength is deter-
mined from the core data. Then the 10% fractile of the in-place strength, which is
equivalent to the specified strength, is obtained. The lower-bound estimate of the
mean in-place strength, ( f c )CL , and the equivalent in-place compressive strength of
concrete, f c,eq , , are calculated using Eqs. (1.8) and (1.9).
Fig. 1.7 K and Z factors depending on the required confidence level
/
(T sc )2
( f c )CL = f c − + (Z sa )2 (1.8)
n
f c,eq = C( f c )CL (1.9)
The first term under the square root of Eq. (1.5) represents the effect of the sample
size on the uncertainty of the mean in-place strength. The factor “T” depends on the
confidence level, as shown in Fig. 1.8.
“C” factor depends on the number of batches, number of members and type of
construction as shown in Fig. 1.9
In case material properties cannot be evaluated from drawings, specifications or
other documents, ACI 562 R-16 provides historical data that can be used in the USA
as a guide to evaluate concrete properties. It shall be noted that the minimum concrete
reported strength can be as low as 7 MPa, as shown in Fig. 1.10.
It should be noted that for the same concrete quality, results of the core tests
may vary between the different members or within the same member. For example,
Khoury et al. 2014 concluded that for the same concrete batch, results of the core
tests extracted from the lower parts of the columns are 10–20% higher than those
extracted from upper part depending on water-to-cement ratio (w/c). Figure 1.11
reveals a change in the concrete strength measured from core tests along the column’s
height.
Example 1.1 Table 1.2 shows core test results, measured for the in-place strength
of concrete samples extracted from the ground floor in building “A”. It is required to
calculate the equivalent in-place compressive strength of concrete, f c,eq .
Fig. 1.8 “T” factor depending on the required confidence level
Fig. 1.9 “C” factor as per

ACI 214.4 R-10
Answer
Figure 1.12 shows a plot of the core test results with a large scatter of data that
ranges from 19 to 57 MPa, which is not recommended to be used as one set of data
to calculate one value for the design concrete strength of all the structural members
in the ground floor. The core test results shall be divided into two groups; where
the first group shall be for the columns and walls and the second group shall be for
the slab. The core test results for the slab-on-ground and grade beams shall not be
included in the calculation of the design strength of the previous two groups. The
two approaches described in the previous section were used to estimate the in-place
Fig. 1.10 Default concrete compressive strength for structural concrete as per ACI 562 R-16
Fig. 1.11 Strength variation

through column’s height
(Khoury et al. 2014)
Table 1.2 Core test results of

Structural element Results (MPa)
building A
Columns at ground floor 34.4, 56.8, 44.6, 41.9, 45.9, 35.8
Walls at ground floor 32.9, 32.1, 31.7
Ground floor ceiling slab 29.5, 26.6, 19, 21.4, 23.8
Slab-on-ground 39.0, 33.8
Grade beams 42.8, 32.5, 33.0
Average value = 35 MPa
Fig. 1.12 Core test results of building “A”
concrete compressive strength for vertical elements and concrete slab using 90%
confidence level. Calculations and results of the analyses are plotted in Table 1.3 and
in Figs. 1.13 and 1.14.
The lower bound of the equivalent design strength is 21 and 13 MPa for the
columns and slab, respectively. The calculated upper bound of the equivalent in-
place cylinder strength is 28 MPa for columns and walls and 19 MPa for the ceiling
slab of the ground floor, which is recommended to be the concrete strength used in
the design check of the elements.
It shall be noted that all data has to be checked for outliers as per ASTM E178
based on the calculated standard deviation.
1.4 Structure Modeling
Three-dimensional finite element analysis of concrete structures is now customary,

especially with the availability of many easy-to-use software programs using compli-
cated and accurate techniques. Yet, hand calculations are essential in order to estimate
the straining actions and preliminary dimensions of the structural strengthening. The
load path should be clearly identified, especially when any changes in the structure
supporting elements are made due to architectural requirements or for the purpose of
relieving the overstressed members since it may affect the strength of other members
in the structure. For example, adding inclined members to reduce the axial load in
columns or to reduce the span of the concrete beam, as shown in Fig. 1.15, shall result
in axial tension, which shall affect the shear strength of the beam. The new inclined
member shall also change the magnitude and probably the direction of bending
moments in the beam. In this regards, the engineer should identify the load path and
Table 1.3 Analysis of core test results
1.4 Structure Modeling
Structural Results n L/d V l /d Vd V mc Vd Sa Sc z AVG k (kS c )^2 (Z sa )2 T (TS c )2/n C f ' c CL f ' c 0.1 f ' c Tolerance f ' c Alternate
element (Mpa) approach approach
Columns 34.4 9 1.81 0.000865 0.059 0.025 0.025 2.721666 8.447 1.28 39.6 2.14 326.78 12.136 1.395 15.429 0.83 34.32 21.5 21 28
56.8 1.92 0.000168 0.059 0.025 0.025
44.6 1.60 0.004002 0.059 0.025 0.025
41.9 1.93 0.00013 0.059 0.025 0.025
45.9 1.91 0.000226 0.059 0.025 0.025
35.8 1.89 0.000286 0.059 0.025 0.025
Walls 32.9 1.77 0.001288 0.059 0.025 0.025
32.1 1.94 8.12E-05 0.059 0.025 0.025
31.7 1.94 9.92E-05 0.059 0.025 0.025
Slabs 29.5 5 1.74 0.001742 0.059 0.025 0.025 1.654927 4.147 1.28 24.1 2.74 129.12 4.487 1.53 8.052 0.91 20.52 12.7 13 19
26.6 2.01 9.00E-07 0.059 0.025 0.025
19 2.05 6.50E-05 0.059 0.025 0.025
21.4 2.01 2.50E-06 0.059 0.025 0.025
23.8 2.06 0.000119 0.059 0.025 0.025
15
Core Test Data for Columns/Walls

60
50
Concrete Strength (MPa)
40
30 f'c by Alternate Approach = 28 MPa

f'c by Tolerance Approach = 21 MPa
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Sample #
Fig. 1.13 Core test results of columns and walls
Core Test Data for Slabs

60
50
Concrete Strength (MPa)
40
30
20 f'c by Alternate Approach = 19 MPa
f'c by Tolerance Approach = 13 MPa
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Sample #
Fig. 1.14 Core test results of slab ceiling
validate all the changes in the straining actions as a result of addition or omission
of any member in the structure. Another example is for buildings where vertical
elements are under-designed and as a result and due to concrete creep, vertical loads
were shared by existing blockwork, which was not originally designed as structural
members. In this case, removal of non-structural walls may cause risk in the structure
since the walls changes to be structural with time.
In general, challenges facing the structural engineers when modeling concrete
structures either for evaluation purpose or for design of the strengthening scheme are
(1) to assume the relative stiffness between members, (2) include the construction
and loading sequence, (3) model the concrete members subjected to volume change,
(4) modeling of the connections and (5) uncertainty of the physical properties of
concrete members.
1.4 Structure Modeling 17
Tension Tension
Compression
Added Added
member member
Tension
Fig. 1.15 Load path in strengthened structure
1.4.1 Relative Stiffness Between Members
Design parameters of concrete elements used in the model should represent the
actual condition of the existing structure to reasonably estimate the relative stiff-
ness between members and calculate the straining actions in the structure. Concrete
elastic modulus and effective area and inertia of each section are the most effective
parameters that have a direct impact on the distribution of straining actions between
members. Modeling of the connections, whether it is pinned, fixed, partially fixed or
allowing movement or rotation in one or more than one direction is also an important
parameter in the modeling.
Distribution of the straining actions due to gravity loads shall differ based on
the relative stiffness between elements; yet, the total actions shall remain the same
regardless of the stiffness reduction. This is not true for the straining actions resulting
from volume change, where the induced straining actions in the members and the total
actions shall change with the change of the relative stiffness between members. The
ACI318-19 recommends reduction in the moment of inertia to account for concrete
cracking and cross-sectional area for concrete members subjected to gravity and
lateral loads. ACI 224.2 R-92 provides recommendations for the effective concrete
area when subjected to axial tension forces. Table 1.4 recommends design values for
the inertia and cross-sectional areas to be used in analysis and design of structures.
The recommended design values for axial stiffness of slabs and beams are mainly
when those members are subjected to axial tension that may result from deformational
restraint.
1.4.2 Construction Sequence of Rehabilitation Works
Strengthening of structural members by addition of other elements attached to the

original concrete section may be applied using passive or active techniques. In the
passive technique, new element is attached to the original section, while it is already
stressed under the effect of its self-weight and other gravity loads. The original
Table 1.4 Recommended design values for moment of inertia and sectional area of concrete
members
Member and condition Moment of inertia Cross-sectional area for Cross-sectional area for
axial deformation shear deformation
Columns 0.7 I g 0.7 Ag
Uncracked walls 0.7 I g 0.7 Ag
Cracked walls 0.35 I g 0.6 Ag
PT Beams 0.7 I g 0.7 Ag bw h
Beams 0.35 I g 0.5 Ag
PT slabs 0.5 I g 0.5 Ag
RC slabs 0.25 I g 0.25 Ag
section shall also carry alone the weight of the new element used in strengthening.
The new composite member shall participate in carrying the additional loads on the
structure added after completion of the strengthening works. Algebraic superposition
of the stresses shall be made to calculate the final stresses in the original and new
section, as shown in Fig. 1.16. By time, the distribution of stresses shall change in
the composite section since part of the increased strains in the original section due
to creep shall be transmitted to the new material.
In active strengthening, either upward jacking of the structure or external
prestressing shall be applied to relieve the stresses from the original section; then,
the new composite section shall be resisting the full applied loads including self-
weight of the members. In both passive and active strengthening, bond between the
original and added section should be guaranteed to transmit the full horizontal shear
at the interface efficiently without slip and to assume full composite behavior with
the shown stress distribution in Fig. 1.16.
Fig. 1.16 Stresses in beams with passive and active strengthening

Modeling concrete structure to account for this construction sequence should be

made to accurately calculate the stresses in the new sections. This may be done by
creating more than one structural model and manually superimpose the stresses of
each section.
1.4.3 Concrete Members Subjected to Volume Change
Concrete members are affected by volume change resulting from temperature vari-
ation, shrinkage, creep or prestressing, especially with the increase of the restraint
provided by shear walls, cores or columns with large stiffness. Restraint of concrete
members arises also by the internal steel reinforcement and with the increase of the
structure dimension between joints. Despite that there is no general agreement on
the design parameters of concrete sections subjected to this type of loading, attention
should be given to the design assumptions since it will lead to a large deviation in
the resulting straining actions. In most cases, the volume change shall result in axial
forces in the slabs and bending moments in the vertical members, where considering
the tension forces in the slab is vital to avoid large cracks and due to its negative impact
on the shear strength of concrete members. Ignoring the tension forces induced from
volume changes also risks the concrete slabs of initiating cracks affecting the overall
durability of the structure.
One- and two-dimensional analyses of concrete members with pinned or fixed
supports subjected to volume changes shall result in upper-bound straining actions
in the slabs and floor beams. Three-dimensional analysis of structures, where the
vertical members are represented in the model, shall result in more realistic straining
actions, especially if the soil subgrade reactions are included in the three directions.
Reinforced concrete members subjected to axial tension cracks once the concrete
reaches its tensile strength leading to change in the axial stiffness; yet, the stiffness
still higher than that of the bare steel bar due to tension stiffening, as shown in
Fig. 1.17. Tension stiffening refers to the contribution of concrete between cracks at
service loads. Prior to ultimate load, tension stiffening is completely lost and the full
tension force is resisted by the steel reinforcement and the bare steel bar stiffness
governs the behavior.
For concrete slab with 1% steel reinforcement ratio, the gross sectional area
resisting tension before cracking is “Ac ”, where Ac is the concrete sectional area. At
ultimate and after losing the tension stiffening, the equivalent concrete area resisting
tension force is the area of steel reinforcement “As ” multiplied by the modular ratio
“n”, where n equals (E s /E c ). Assuming that the modular ratio is equal to “10”, the
equivalent area resisting tension at ultimate is approximately equal to “0.1 Ac ”. This
means that the stiffness of concrete section subjected to tension forces drops to
only 10% of the uncracked stiffness at ultimate. At service loads, it is reasonable
to assume that the equivalent area of the concrete section is not less than 50% of
the gross concrete cross section in order to limit the crack width. In addition, the
concrete elastic modulus may be reduced under sustained load due to creep, as per
Fig. 1.17 Tension stiffening

in concrete (P) (P)
Mean steel
Load (P)
strain Bare
bar
strain
Tension
stiffening
Eq. (1.10).
E ci
E c(t) = (1.10)
1+φ
where E ci and E c(t) are the concrete elastic modulus at 28 days and at time (t) and
φ is the creep factor. It is conservative to assume that the concrete elastic modulus
is only 50% of the initial concrete modulus for members subjected to volumetric
changes. Therefore, the axial tension stiffness of concrete section may be assumed
as per Eq. (1.11).
(EA)T = (0.5E ci )x(0.5Ac ) = 0.25E ci Ac (1.11)
1.4.4 Connections Modeling
Analysis of the connections in existing concrete structures is probably one of the

difficult tasks since in-situ investigation of the reinforcement details and connections’
stiffness is questionable. Structures made of precast concrete components are full
of connections, which affects the overall stability and distribution of forces between
the different elements. Assumptions of the connection properties based on visual
inspection, common practice and laboratory testing of the used materials should be
employed in the structural model. Strut-and-tie method is one of the best techniques
to analyze connections since it is based on truss analogy, which can be applied at
the discontinuity regions. Analysis using strut-and-tie model, (STM), requires the
following:
Tie
Tie Tie
Tie
Strut
Fig. 1.18 Typical STM for short cantilever and dapped end beam
1. Define the “B-” and “D-” regions, i.e., beam and discontinuity regions.
2. Develop a STM; a truss system representing the stress flow in member and
calculate the forces in the truss model.
3. Design the members of the STM—Design the compression struts and steel in the
ties to resist the design forces as well as the stresses in the nodes.
4. Iterate the modeling for member optimization and to minimize strain energy.
Typical STM of short cantilever and dapped end beam are shown in Fig. 1.18. It
should be noted that crack control reinforcement should be added independent from
the strut-and-tie analysis in addition to anchorage of the tie reinforcement.
1.4.5 Uncertainty of the Physical Properties of Concrete

Members
Evaluation of existing concrete structures requires that the engineer shall deal with the
uncertainty in the design parameters inherent in the physical and material properties
of concrete elements so that a safe and serviceable structure should be secured. This
is in addition to the uncertainties in load values, load combinations and safety factors,
which are also valid for new structures. The engineer should take all measures in
order to build confidence in the design parameters, which include the following:
1. Use of available data including drawings, documents, material and soil testing
results as well as available information given by the designer, contractor,
authorities, neighbors, tenants and owner.
2. Observe symptoms of distress, cracking, deformation or any other deterioration
of the concrete members.
3. Compare the material properties of the structure with commonly used properties
in other structures built in the same era.
4. Conduct statistical analysis to calculate the lower and upper bound of parameters
affecting the design. It is then the engineer decision to select a value in which he
is confident in or perform sensitivity analysis for critical members. For example,
prestressing forces in flexural members may be hard to measure after occurrence
of long-term losses; yet, minimum and maximum values may be calculated and
used in the evaluation.
5. Dynamic evaluation of the design parameters during construction, since new
information may be encountered during application of repair or retrofit scheme.
6. Conduct load test of concrete floors (if needed); while it is not practical to perform
in-situ testing of vertical members.
1.4.6 Archaic Structural Systems
Uncommon structural systems that have been developed at a certain era or in a certain
place, may be utilized in an existing building that is under evaluation. Application of
engineered procedure to understand the structural system requires first to understand
both the architectural and structural historical background of the used construction
technique. Once this system is acknowledged, it is then customary to find this tech-
nique recurrent with the same materials and dimensions for structures built in the
same time frame. For example, floors in some buildings built in Europe and the
Middle East in the beginning of the twentieth century are made of steel beams,
which may be rail rods, supporting either plain concrete or brickwork arches, which
in turn carries fill with variable thickness and wood floor, as shown in Fig. 1.19. The
arch is mainly used to develop compression forces since the plain concrete cannot
carry tension forces.
Wood floor
Fill
Steel beam Plain concrete arches
Steel beam
Fig. 1.19 Floor structural system

1.5 Design Guidelines 23
1.5 Design Guidelines
Design codes require that the demand-to-capacity ratio should be less than 1.00 for
each member in order to have a safe structure. Selection of the design building code,
based on which evaluation and/or rehabilitation of the structure shall be followed,
is critical. The Code Requirements for Assessment, Repair and Rehabilitation of
Existing Concrete Structures ACI562-16 specifies the following:
Evaluations of damage and the limit for damage to be repaired using the original building
code. The definition of “original building code” is the building code in effect at the time of
original permitted construction. If this limit is exceeded or if the licensed design, professional
judges the structural safety to be unacceptable based on rational engineering principles,
rehabilitation is necessary in accordance with the requirements of the current building code,
which is defined by the code which establishes the design and construction regulations for
new construction.
If the demand-to-capacity ratio is less than 1.5 and there is a reason to question
the structural safety due to structural defects or material deterioration, it shall be
assessed using the original design building code with nominal loads and capacities
to determine if the ratio exceeds 1.0. In this case, repair work shall be legitimate to
restore the defected member/structure to its safe condition based on the materials
of the original construction. Yet, if this ratio for a given member exceeds 1.5, the
current design building code shall be the design basis criteria since no marginal of
safety against failure exists. If the demand-to-capacity ratio does not exceed 1.0, no
strengthening shall be required. It should be noted that mixing of load factors or load
combinations from one code with strength reduction factors from a different code
shall result in an inconsistent level of reliability.
In general, assessment should address if the demand or capacity of the original
member or structure is considerably inconsistent with current codes and results in
unacceptable structural safety. The structural engineer should check if there is a
major change in the design criteria between the original and current building codes
that lead to an unacceptable difference. Use of original building code is questioned
in the assessment procedure of existing structures when differences with the current
code incurred increase of applied loads, change in load factors, strength reduction
factors or load combinations, modification of analytical procedures or major changes
in the calculated capacity or in the cost savings.
During assessment of any “unsafe” structure, the design engineer should decide
if it is for the benefit of the structure to include moment redistribution of flexural
members. The ACI318-19 permits 7.5–20% moment redistribution provided that the
net tensile strain in the steel reinforcement at flexural capacity is more than 0.0075,
as shown in Fig. 1.20. Redundancy of the structural members, alternate load path,
collapse mechanism, redistribution of superimposed dead and live loads and/or any
restraint of the structure may be also included in the evaluation.
Fig. 1.20 Moment 25

redistribution in flexural
concrete members ACI318-19
20
Percent change in moment

15
10
Minimum
5 permissible
Net tensile strain =
0.0075
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Net tensile strain
1.5.1 Safety Factors
For evaluation of existing structures, the safety factors may be reduced using higher
strength reduction factors (φ) provided that the as-built dimensions, location of steel
reinforcement and material properties are verified at the critical sections on site. It
should be noted that the reduced strength reduction factor shall not be used for the
rehabilitation design. The ACI318-19 recommends the reduction of φ factors, as per
Table 1.5.
Table 1.5 Reduced strength reduction factors for structure evaluation (ACI318-19)
Action φ factor φ factor
for new design for structure
evaluation
Axial compression, Compression 0.65 for tied columns 0.8 for tied
Flexure or combined controlled 0.75 for spiral columns columns
action members 0.9 for spiral
columns
Tension controlleda 0.9 1.0
members
Shear and torsion 0.75 0.8
Bearing 0.75 0.8
a For transition zone between compression and tension-controlled failures, see Fig. 1.21
1.5 Design Guidelines 25
Fig. 1.21 Strength reduction

factor (φ) with net tensile
strain
For members strengthened with external reinforcing systems, such as external

prestressing, externally bonded fiber reinforced polymer, (FRP) laminates, or exter-
nally bonded steel plates, the unstrengthened member should be checked to satisfy
a minimum strength without the participation of the external reinforcing system, as
per Eq. (1.12). This condition aims at minimizing the risk of overload or damage
to the unstrengthened member during its service life due to loss of the external
reinforcement as a result of fire, vandalism or collision.
φ Rn ≥ 1.1 D + 0.75 L + 0.2 S (1.12)
where the live load factor may be increased to 1.0 instead of 0.75 for cases with live
load higher than 4.8 kPa.
It should be noted that members subjected to only axial compression are consid-
ered to be compression-controlled and members subjected to only axial tension are
considered to be tension-controlled. If the net tensile strain in the extreme tension
reinforcement, εt , at nominal strength of the flexural member is sufficiently large
(≥ εty + 0.003), the section is defined as tension-controlled, where εty is the yield
strain of steel reinforcement but not more than 0.002. This relationship sets the
reduction factor at 0.90 for ductile sections and 0.65 for brittle sections where the
steel does not yield and provides a linear transition for the reduction factor between
these two extremes. For tension-controlled members, warning of failure by exces-
sive deflection and cracking and sufficient ductility for most applications may be
expected. Compression-controlled members have less ductility and are more sensitive
to variations in concrete strength.
1.5.2 Maximum Strengthening Ratio
Maximum strengthening limits should be imposed if failure of the strengthened

concrete element is suspected to happen due to any reason under the effect of
fire, vandalism, damage under certain environmental conditions, or other causes.

Applying the maximum strengthening ratio ensures that the original member without
strengthening shall not collapse in case that the strengthening scheme is completely
lost. Using concrete jacket is the most reliable strengthening technique to guard
against collapse of the strengthened member when subjected to any of those causes;
hence, there are no strengthening limits in this case.
Physical and material properties of steel members are changed when subjected to
fire, where reduction in the tensile strength starts at around 400 °C and the stiffness is
reduced when temperature exceeds 150 °C. Due to the property changes, deformation,
local buckling and twisting of the steel member can also occur. Strength of the steel
connections and bolts is severely affected by fire and may result in catastrophic
failure. In this respect, protection of the steel members against fire is mandatory to
maintain the structure fire rating. Various approaches are available for fireproofing
steel members such as encasement in concrete, which may be undesirable since it
adds weight to the structure, a lath and plaster ceiling or spray-on materials such as
mineral fibers, perlite, vermiculite or gypsum. This protection is usually enough not
to impose limits on concrete members strengthened with steel sections. The decision
shall then be made based on the constructability and cost–benefit of utilizing this
technique in strengthening.
Corrosion protection of the steel section is also required, where painting is a
practical and cost-effective way. Use of coating materials such as epoxies, or other
mineral and polymeric compounds can be considered. Use of corrosion resistance
steel such as weathering or galvanized steel is another alternative.
The most affected strengthening material with fire and vulnerable to damage under
elevated temperature that can lead to loss of the strengthening scheme is FRP. One
of the physical properties that should be carefully addressed when using FRP in
strengthening is the glass transition temperature, T g , which is defined as the temper-
ature at or above which the molecular structure exhibits macromolecular mobility. At
the glass transition temperature, the amorphous regions experience transition from
rigid state to more flexible state making the material at the border of the solid state to
rubbery state, as shown in Fig. 1.22. The glass transition temperature of the commer-
cially available resins cured under ambient temperature ranges from 60 to 82 °C and
may be increased to 160 °C when cured under elevated temperature. Those values
are well below the temperature generated when fire occurs.
In this case, the maximum strengthening ratio is determined so that the unstrength-
ened structural member should have sufficient strength to resist a certain load level.
The existing strength of the element should be sufficient to resist a level of load
as described by Eqs. (1.13) and (1.14); therefore, the maximum strengthening ratio
for members strengthened with FRP is around 40% more than that of the original
section. More precisely Eq. (1.13) is to limit the strengthening ratio in case of loss
of FRP due to bond failure, damage, vandalism, or other cause, while Eq. (1.14) is
to safeguard the section from collapse in case of fire.
(φ Rn )existing ≥ (1.1SDL + 0.75 to 1.0SLL)New (1.13)

1.6 Case Study 1.1 27
Fig. 1.22 Glass transition

temperature
FRP Stiffness
Tg Temperature
(Rnθ ) ≥ (1.0SDL + 1.0SLL)New (1.14)
where “Rn ” is the nominal resistance of the original section, “Rnθ ” is the nominal
resistance of the member at an elevated temperature, and SDL and SLL are the dead
and live loads, respectively, calculated for the strengthened member. In Eq. (1.13),
the live load multiplier is taken 0.75, unless the live load on the member has a high
likelihood of being present for a sustained period of time; then, the live load multiplier
should be taken equal to 1.0.
In case of FRP strengthening by more than 40% of the original section capacity is
required, fire protection shall be provided using suitable materials. The materials shall
prove adequate performance under fire by tests conducted at certified laboratories on
full-scale models loaded under fire. The fireproofing materials should ensure that the
temperature at the FRP surface shall not exceed the glass transition temperature of the
matrix used in the FRP composite during fire, as shown in Fig. 1.23. Fire endurance
of 1.0–1.5 h can be achieved and should be indicated on the design drawings for
strengthening with a clear method of statement for testing. The structure should also
have redundancy in transmitting the applied loads in case of allowing fireproofing
materials to be used; i.e., exceeding the 40% strengthening limit is not recommended
for cantilevers where redundancy is not achieved.
1.6 Case Study 1.1
This case study is for a building consisting of basement, ground, six typical floors
and a roof. The basement is constructed on the full footprint of the land, while the
building footprint is much smaller, as shown in Fig. 1.24. The basement ceiling is
a post-tensioned concrete slab resting on post-tensioned wide beams from one side
which in turn supported on a series of columns, and fixed to reinforced concrete
retaining wall from the other side. The wall retains the earth from one side and is
divided by expansion joints. The figure shows the building envelope, (in Blue), where
the top surface of the basement slab is exposed to ambient temperature, while the
underside of the slab and the inner side of the walls are not exposed.
Fire
protection
layer
(600 – 800) OC
Temperature
gradient
Less than Tg
FRP Laminate (60 – 160) OC
Section in concrete member

Concrete strengthened with FRP
Fig. 1.23 Temperature gradient in FRP fireproofing material
Building 3
Envelope
2
1
RC Retaining
Wall
G
B
A
Plan Section A-A
Fig. 1.24 Plan view and section of building (Case study 1.1)
1.6.1 Problem Statement
Concrete cracking in the basement ceiling exposed to ambient temperature was

observed in the direction perpendicular to the reinforced concrete wall with a typical
pattern along the slab, as shown in Fig. 1.25.
Analysis showed that the strength of PT slab can sustain safely the gravity loads
resulting from dead and live loads. However, the concrete slab was also subjected
to a large temperature variation. Since the concrete slab is fixed to the wall, which
Fig. 1.25 Cracking in the PT slab
encounters high stiffness restraining the slab movement induced from the temperature
variation, a large axial tension resulted from this restraint, as shown in the Figure. This
tension in the slab led to patterned concrete cracking perpendicular to the retaining
wall.
1.6.2 Strengthening Calculations
Three-dimensional model of the structure including the walls, columns and base-
ment ceiling was used to calculate the additional straining actions in the slab due
to temperature variation. It is not advisable to model concrete members subjected
to tension forces using the gross concrete section properties since this will result
in huge tension forces, which does not exist after occurrence of minor cracking in
the slab, which in turn will reduce the member stiffness. It is also unwise to use
the stiffness of the steel reinforcement only when modeling the concrete member
subjected to tension since this will result in large concrete crack width. Therefore,
the value of 50% of the gross member area was used combined with 50% of the
short-term concrete elastic modulus, as per Eq. (1.8). The proposed strengthening
scheme aimed at resisting the resulting tension forces in the concrete induced from
temperature variation.
1.6.3 PT Slab Remedy
Strengthening the slab was carried out, first by injecting the cracks with low-viscous
epoxy and adhering carbon fiber reinforced polymer, (CFRP), strips to the top and
bottom surfaces of the concrete slab. The strips were bonded to the slab in the
direction parallel to the wall and perpendicular to the existing cracks. This additional
reinforcement stopped the development of further cracks and controlled the existing
cracks in the slab.
1.7 Case Study 1.2
This case study is for a building consisting of two basements, ground and 20 typical
floors with a footprint area of 2500 m2 . The structural system of the building consists
of post-tensioned concrete flat slabs with 250 mm thickness supported on vertical
concrete members, which are supported on concrete mat foundation. The lateral
resisting structural elements consist of shear walls, cores and a series of columns.
Several columns and walls in the building are planted and carried on adjacent columns
through series of transfer walls, as shown in Fig. 1.26.
Planted walls
Level 06
Level 05
Planted column
Level 04
Level 03
Planted wall
Fig. 1.26 Section elevation of the building (Case study 1.2)

1.7.1 Problem Diagnosis
Structural problems were recognized in the building as cracks were observed in

the post–tensioned, (PT), concrete flat slab at different floors at the location of the
flag/transfer wall, as shown in Fig. 1.27. Those cracks were typical at every floor,
where planted columns/ walls exist. Added to the problem that no top steel mesh was
used in the slab and only few steel bars were placed at the negative moment region,
since the slab was post-tensioned, as shown in the Figure. Due to the absence of the
top steel mesh, the observed cracks were as wide as 2.00 mm, as shown in Fig. 1.28.
Cracks became wider as they extended in the middle of the slab away of the few top
steel reinforcements placed at the column zone.
It was essential to study the overall behavior of the structure when checking the
safety of each structural element in the building. Using 2D analysis is misleading
since it overlooks the vertical deformations of the slab at the planted vertical elements.
In order to consider the slab deformation at the column locations in the slab design
check, 3D finite element model of the structure was used. The structural analysis of
the building using the 3D model showed large deformation in the slabs at the location
of the planted walls, as shown in Fig. 1.29. This is despite the fact that a tie existed
to arrest the deformation of the slab as shown in the figure. This deformation was
not considered in the first design of the PT slab, where 2D analysis was used.
Moreover, sequential construction was also considered in the analysis to account
for the deformations of the vertical elements carrying lower floors, which already
Fig. 1.27 Plan showing Top

typical crack reinforcement
Crack in the
area free of top
reinforcement
Top
reinforcement
Planted
wall
Fig. 1.28 Crack in the PT

slab
occurred before casting the upper floors. The long-term deformations of the slab due
to concrete creep and reduction of the flexural stiffness were also considered in the
analysis using the modified concrete elastic modulus, as per Eq. (1.7) and 70% of
the gross PT slab moment of inertia considering that the slab is designed not to crack
under service loads.
1.7.2 Concrete Slab Repair
Since the cracks in the PT slab occurred as a result of the induced slab deformations
after deflection of the planted columns, and due to the fact that there was no top rein-
forcement in the slab, crack widths were relatively large ranging from 1.0 to 2.0 mm.
Despite that some design codes do not enforce adding top steel reinforcement in the
PT slabs, providing this reinforcement has an important role to arrest any potential
cracks that may be induced from unforeseen deformations resulting from unequal
loads distribution, concrete shrinkage or temperature variations. Large cracks width
will definitely affect the durability and overall integrity of the slab. It should be
noted that some design codes recommend using minimum non-prestressed steel area
in the PT slabs regardless of the stress level under service loading conditions (ECP
203–2020).
Fig. 1.29 Frame analysis of building zone with planted walls/columns
The procedure of repair started with monitoring of those cracks in order to inves-
tigate if the cracks are still live. After confirming that the cracks are stagnant and no
propagation of the cracks was observed, injecting the cracks with low-viscous epoxy
was recommended to seal the crack opening in order to regain its structural integrity.
Strengthening of the slab was further implemented using externally bonded carbon
fiber reinforced polymer, (CFRP), laminates on the top concrete surface at the crack
location in order to arrest the cracks and preserve its durability aspects. Area of CFRP
reinforcement was calculated so that it compensates for the tensile force generated
in the slab after considering the induced deformations and secondary effects from
concrete shrinkage and creep. It is important to consider the reduced section stiffness
considering cracking and long-term concrete modulus when calculating the induced
tensile forces in the concrete.
Chapter 2
Strengthening of Concrete Columns
Columns subjected to uniaxial compression fail due to lateral tensile stresses caused
by Poisson effect resulting in lateral expansion, as shown in Fig. 2.1a. Poisson effect
describes the expansion or contraction of a material in directions perpendicular to
the direction of loading. If lateral expansion can develop freely, then the member is
in uniaxial stress state. The resulting cracks are splitting tensile cracks parallel to the
direction of loadings. This type of failure is usually observed for uniaxially loaded
columns with low or normal compressive strength. Another mode of failure may be
also observed, where inclined cracks occur, which was may be observed for columns
with high concrete compressive strength, as shown in Fig. 2.1b.
2.1 Column Jacketing
Columns jacketing may be applied using concrete, steel or fiber reinforced polymer
laminates. The jacketing aims at reducing the lateral expansion of repaired columns
and as the stiffness of the jacket in the transverse direction increases, the lateral defor-
mation of the column decreases. If the lateral expansion is completely restrained, i.e.,
no lateral deformation develops, then the member is in uniaxial deformation state.
This is impractical since the stiffness of the jacket can never be infinite. Therefore,
jacketed columns are always under triaxial state of stress and deformation. As the
stiffness of the jacket increases, high tensile stresses are induced in the jacket and
vice-versa, high confining pressure is induced on the original column section and
the resulting lateral deformation becomes less. It should be noted that the concrete
Poisson ratio increases with the increase of concrete cracking, and as such higher
level of confinement is achieved before failure.
The jacket of square columns, shown in Fig. 2.2a, is loaded with internal pressure,
which generates tension in the transverse direction of the jacket. The distribution of
the confining stresses is not uniform; as different deformations are observed along the
jacket-wall, as shown in Fig. 2.2b. Elongation of the jacket at the corners is generated
36 2 Strengthening of Concrete Columns
Deformed
shape
Cracks
a) Failure mode 1: Splitting tensile cracks b) Failure mode 2: Inclined shear cracks
Fig. 2.1 Concrete columns under uniaxial load
by the tensile force; however, at the mid-wall width, additional flexural deformation
is also observed (δsquare in Fig. 2.2b); therefore, the confining effect is reduced in the
mid-wall zones. As, the dimensions of the square column increase, less confinement
of the column is achieved at the mid-wall width and the overall confined area of the
column is reduced.
For circular columns, the jacket is loaded with uniform internal pressure, which
generates uniform tension and equal lateral deformation in the jacket-wall. In this
case, the original concrete section is uniformly confined, as shown in Fig. 2.2c, and
the utmost benefit of the jacket is achieved since the deformation of the jacket is
minimal (δ circle in Fig. 2.2c). Confinement of the rectangular columns by the jacket is
much reduced, as shown in Fig. 2.2d, especially for columns with large aspect ratio.
This is mainly due to the large outward deformation of the long side of the column
(δ rectangle in Fig. 2.2d), induced by expansion of the original column section.
2.1.1 Concrete Jacket
Concrete jackets are made to columns by increasing its dimensions and both its
longitudinal and transverse steel reinforcement. The composite action between the
old and the new concrete is the main key element for the success of the repair work.
The purpose of using concrete jackets is to increase the axial-moment capacity,
shear capacity or the columns stiffness. Increasing the columns stiffness will result
in enhancement of the lateral deformation of the building; yet, it will attract higher
2.1 Column Jacketing 37
δ square
Deformed
Column shape
Original Un-confined
jacket
section zone
Confined
zone
a) Square column (before loading) b) Square column (after loading)

δ rectangle
δ circle Confined Un-confined

zone zone
Confined
zone
Deformed
shape
c) Circular column (after loading) d) Rectangular column (after loading)
Fig. 2.2 Confinement of the columns induced by the jacket
straining actions due to increase of the lateral load demand. In this case, it is a
tradeoff and the design engineer should calculate and does not overestimate the jacket
thickness. Concrete jackets can also solve buckling problems of slender columns.
Despite that the concrete jacket is used at a large scale in repair of concrete
columns, there are some disadvantages inherent with its application. For example,
the size of final concrete section after repair is increased and free space in the building
becomes less, which makes it unfavorable to architects and building owners. Care
should be also given during the application of the jacket since it requires lots of
drilling in the original column section, which might be already weak, and in the
slabs/beams as well as footings. Application of concrete jackets is not a speedy
process and casting the concrete monolithically requires precision, especially for the
top parts of the jackets.
The strength of the repaired member after adding the concrete jacket mainly
depends on the strength of the jacket and the added strength of the original member
after the provided confinement of the jacket. Therefore, it is for the best to have the
jacket from the four sides of the column; yet, this is not applicable in many cases,
especially for the columns at the edge or corners of the buildings. Confinement of the
original concrete section is much recognized for the small size columns compared
to those of the large size columns.
2.1.1.1 Construction of Concrete Jacket
Application of the concrete jackets to columns should be done on steps, as shown in

Figs. 2.3 and 2.4 and as follows:
1. Designed propping of the slabs surrounding the column and the slabs at other
floors is provided to create another load path to the foundations since the column
capacity is significantly reduced during application of the jacket.
2. Removal of the concrete cover is followed until sound concrete in the original
section is reached in case no steel corrosion exists. Sandblasting is recommended
to roughen the concrete surface since pneumatic hammering may induce micro-
cracking of the substrate. In case that reinforcement of the original section is
corroded, concrete cover should be fully removed until the longitudinal steel
bars are exposed. The steel bars are cleaned and painted with anti-corrosion
paint or replaced with new steel bars if the level of corrosion is high.
3. Steel dowels are inserted along the column all around the cross-section to mechan-
ically bond the new to the old concrete section. The depth of the planted bars and
the material used for planting the bars should be selected so that at least the yield
force in the bars is developed. The longitudinal steel bars of the jacket shall be
planted in the foundation and through holes in the slabs are made to allow for the
longitudinal bars to continue across the floor slabs. The designed longitudinal
1: Original section 2: Concrete to be 3: Cleaning steel

demolished reinforcement
4: Inserting steel 5: Fixing steel cage 6: Casting new

dowels of the jacket concrete
Fig. 2.3 Construction steps of column’s concrete jacket

Fig. 2.4 Concrete jacket

during construction
Through
holes
Concrete slab
Jacket steel
reinforcement
Props
Planted
dowels
Footing
and transverse steel reinforcement of the jacket are placed in position, while it
is recommended to hook the planted steel dowels to the longitudinal bars. The
hooks will prevent early buckling of the longitudinal steel bars and enhance the
confinement level of the column cross-section.
4. The jacket should be cast with material compatible with the material of the
original concrete section. Shrinkage of the jacket material should be minimized
to reduce the stresses on the steel dowels and reduce the cracking in the new
concrete. Specific recommendations for the material used in the jacket are given
in the following section. Monolithic behavior can be assumed if both dowels and
surface roughening of the original column are provided; i.e., no separation exists
at the interface between the old and new concrete.
2.1.1.2 Material Properties of the Jacket
Concrete used for the jacket is cast using design mix with physical properties similar
to and/or compatible to that of the concrete of the original section. Those properties
include the compressive strength, elastic modulus, coefficient of thermal expan-

sion and creep. The aggregate type used in the mix should be similar to that of the
old concrete unless it is proved by testing that similar physical characteristics are
achieved. Vertical separation between the original section and the jacket is expected
with time in case that the properties of the two materials are different. In this respect,
grout or mortar with long-term behavior, which is different from that of the concrete
should not be used in the jacket. Fibers or shrinkage compensating material may be
added to the mix so that the tensile properties of the jacket are enhanced.
Bonding agent may be applied on the old concrete before casting, while the
material instructions provided by the manufacturer are strictly followed. It is for the
best to use form-and-pump technique in concreting, as shown in Fig. 2.5, so that no
honeycombs or voids exist in the jacket. This technique shall also ensure that the top
part of the jacket has no voids and completely filled with concrete. The form-and-
pump technique relies on totally sealed form work and pumping concrete in the form
with adequate pressure. If this technique is not available, holes of 100 mm minimum
diameter may be opened in the slab above to be used for placement of the jacket
concrete. Any voids in the newly cast concrete should be repaired with cementitious
or epoxy grout.
2.1.2 Steel Jacket
Strength and deformation control of columns can be also enhanced using steel jackets
composed of steel angles placed along the column corners and battens placed at
the sides, as shown in Fig. 2.6. An interface layer of cementitious mortar may be
used to improve the effectiveness of the confinement action. However, mechanical
connection is advised using steel anchors connected to the batten plates to avoid
drilling at the corners of the original column section. The mechanical anchors shall
be designed to ensure vertical load transfer from the original section to the jacket.
Eventually, the contribution of the steel jacket to the axial strength of the column
shall be due to the axial compression of the added steel and to the increase of the
concrete strength due to the provided confinement.
The steel angles are generally terminated at the top and bottom of the clear height
of the column, and no continuation of the steel jacket is provided across the floor
slabs. This is due to the difficulty to realize such kind of connections in practice.
Alternatively, the steel angles are terminated at the columns ends by adding steel
batten plates connected to the floor slab by anchor bolts. In this case, both the axial
capacity of the steel angles and the increase in the axial capacity of the original
column provided by the confinement of the steel jacket shall contribute to the overall
capacity of the repaired column. Therefore, checking the structural safety of the
beam-column joint may be required, in case of having significant increase in the
column axial capacity using steel jacket, to ensure that the joint can safely transfer the
increased axial load in the column. It should be mentioned that the ACI318-19 allows
using concrete strength for the beam-column joint not less than 70% of the column
Fig. 2.5 Form-and-pump

concreting
concrete compressive strength without additional requirements for the calculation

of the transfer of column axial force through the floor system. Accordingly, design
check of the beam-column joint must be provided in case that the axial capacity of
the steel-jacketed column is more than 40%.
When columns are subjected to eccentric load that produces tension on one or more
than one side of the column, steel plates should be continuous across the concrete
slab in order to carry the induced tension. In this case, slots should be made in the
slab to pass the reinforcing plates through the concrete floor, as per Fig. 2.7.
2.1.3 FRP Jacket
Columns are subjected to straining actions that produce compressive stresses on the
entire section; yet columns in the upper floors of concrete structures or columns in
concrete frames may be also subjected to partial tensile stresses. The strengthening
technique is different for those columns since FRP laminates have no compression
Grout Weld Anchor

bolts
Concrete slab
B B
Steel
angle
Batten
Anchor bolt Batten plates
Steel plates
Section A-A angle
Props
Steel plate
A A
Anchor
bolts
Anchor Stiffener
bolts
Footing
Section B-B
Elevation
Fig. 2.6 Steel jacket for concrete columns
or flexural stiffness, but it can only carry tension forces in the fiber direction. Tensile
stresses are induced in the transverse direction of columns subjected to compressive
stresses due to Poisson’s ratio, while the tensile stresses exist in the longitudinal direc-
tion, when flexural moments are dominating the failure mode of concrete sections.
Therefore, FRP is applied with the fiber orientation in the transverse direction for
columns with compression control failure and in the longitudinal direction with
tension control failure.
2.1.3.1 Enhancement of Column Axial Capacity with FRP
Wrapping columns with FRP increases its axial capacity and ductility because of
the confinement induced by the lateral compression provoked by the tensile stiffness
of the laminates. The fibers are hence oriented in the transverse direction of the
column in order to utilize its full tensile stiffness. Carbon fiber laminates in the form
of sheets are the preferred type of laminates used in strengthening since it has the
Moment
Steel plates Anchor
(through slab) bolts
Concrete slab
A A
Batten
Steel plates
angle
Steel plates
(through slab) Steel plates (through slab)
Section A-A Elevation
Fig. 2.7 Strengthening of column subjected to eccentric load
highest tensile strength and modulus among all types of fibers. The sheets have typical
thickness ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 mm for the dry fibers. They are externally bonded
to the concrete surface after cleaning the concrete from any debris, loose material
and cleaning the steel reinforcement from corrosion. The concrete surface of the
columns is roughened, and the corners are rounded to avoid any stress concentration
in the wrapped FRP laminates, as shown in Figs. 2.8 and 2.9. FRP laminates are
bonded to the concrete surface with thermosetting resin such as epoxy or vinylester
using procured system or wet layup system (ACI 440.2-R17).
Wrapping circular columns with carbon fiber reinforced polymer, (CFRP), lami-
nates were proven to be a very effective method to increase both the axial capacity and
ductility of columns. However, it is less effective for square columns and much less
effective for rectangular columns with aspect ratio exceeding 2.0. This is attributed to
less confinement of the columns due to the out-of-plane deformation of the laminates,
induced by the axial loads on columns.
Wrapping FRP laminates to enhance both the axial capacity and ductility of
concrete columns is a contact-critical application. This means that FRP jacket is
only activated when the original column expands laterally and pushes the jacket out-
of-plane and only then tensile stresses are initiated in the laminates and in turns it
induces confining pressure on the original column. There is no need to use mechan-
ical anchorage to the column section since FRP jacket does not contribute in the
axial stiffness of the repaired column. This makes the application of the FRP jacket
easy and fast compared to concrete or steel jackets, which require installing time-
consuming mechanical anchorages. However, it is expected that the overall efficiency
of the FRP jackets is less compared to other types of jackets, especially for columns
with large dimensions. It is preferable to have the FRP laminates spaced, as shown
Fig. 2.8 Surface preparation

of column
in Fig. 2.10, so that the concrete column is exposed at certain intervals to avoid any
water or dampness contaminated behind the laminates and give room for monitoring
the column in case if concrete deterioration or cracking occurs.
2.1.3.2 FRP Strengthening of Columns with Partial Tensile Stresses
FRP strips or sheets may be also used to strengthen columns subjected to flexural
moment either due to gravity loads or reversed moment due to lateral loads. In this
case, FRP should be placed with the fiber in the longitudinal direction of the column.
Developing the FRP laminates at the section subjected to the largest bending moment
may be secured by casting concrete encasement with steel dowels, as per the detail
given in Fig. 2.11. Steel encasement may be also used to develop the tensile forces
in the terminated FRP laminates either at the footings or at the concrete floor slabs.
Fig. 2.9 Rounding column

corners
Planting FRP bars in the concrete substrate may be also applied after experimental
investigation of the proper bonding material used for fixation and required embed-
ment length of the bars. Planting the reinforcement should be done so that the full
strength of the bars is developed prior to bond failure.
Frames may be also strengthened at the joint sections to increase the sections
capacity of the columns and the girder, as shown in Fig. 2.12. FRP sheets are used
since it can be shaped at the corners. Rounding the concrete corners at the joints with
minimum radius of 50 mm is essential to reduce the stress concentration. Relatively
big radius is required to shape FRP strips, and hence, the strips are not recommended
for strengthening frame joints. Tests had shown the effectiveness of the FRP laminates
adhered at the joint in increasing the overall frame capacity (Elkarmouty 2004).
Transverse
CFRP sheets
Rectangular
column with
closely spaced
CFRP jacket
Square column with CFRP jacket
Fig. 2.10 CFRP wrapping of concrete columns
Column
Longitudinal FRP
Headed shear pin
Concrete encasement
Headed anchor bar
Bending
Moment Foundation
Envelope
Fig. 2.11 Bond of longitudinal FRP

2.2 Design of Jacketed Column Capacity 47
Joint J oint
section section
FRP laminates FRP laminates
FRP laminates
Mid-span
section
Fig. 2.12 Strengthening of concrete frames (Elkarmouty 2004)
2.2 Design of Jacketed Column Capacity
Calculation of the capacity of jacketed columns starts with measuring the in-situ
concrete compressive strength, steel yield stress and percent of area loss of the
longitudinal bars due to corrosion (if any). The measured material properties are used
to calculate the member response under the effect of external loads. The capacity
of strengthened concrete columns shall be calculated accounting for the increase
in the compressive strength of the original section due to the confinement of the
circular and four-sided jacket. For the three-, two- and one-sided jackets, no or
very little confinement shall be induced on the original section, and therefore, the
unconfined compressive strength of the original column is considered in the column
capacity, as shown in Fig. 2.13. Confinement of the concrete provided by the internal
stirrups of the original section shall be ignored, and the only confinement considered
in the calculations shall be that provided by the external jacket. Furthermore, the
confinement provided by the concrete jacket of rectangular sections may be also
ignored due to its limited strength in the transverse direction.
2.2.1 Columns Subjected to Axial Loads
The axial strength of jacketed columns is provided by the strength of the jacket and
that of the original section when concrete or steel jackets are provided. In case of
using FRP jacket, the axial strength of the jacketed column shall be provided by the
strength of the original section only, while the axial strength of the jacket shall be
equal to zero. The general formula for the calculation of the axial capacity of jacketed
columns is given in Eq. (2.1a).
Original Original
section section
fcc’ fco’
Jacket Jacket
fcj’ fcj’
Four-sided jacket Three-sided jacket
or less
Fig. 2.13 Cross-section of Jacketed columns
[( ( ) )]
0.85
( f cc' Ago − Asto + f yo Asto )
Pu ≤ φ Pn = φχ ( ) (2.1a)
+ 0.85 f cj' Agj − Astj + f yj Astj
where
φ is equal to 0.75 for compression members with spiral reinforcement

and 0.65 for other compression members,
χ is equal to 0.8 for tied column and 0.85 for spiral columns,
Ago and Asto are the concrete and steel areas of the original section,
f yo is the yield stress of the longitudinal steel of the original section,
Agj is the concrete area of the jacket (equal zero in case of steel or FRP
jackets),
Astj is steel area of the longitudinal reinforcing bars in case of concrete
jacket, longitudinal steel sections in case of steel jacket and equal zero
in case of FRP jacket,
f yj is the yield stress of the longitudinal steel of the jacket (if any),
f cc ' is the confined concrete compressive stress of the original section and
is calculated in the following section, and is equal to the unconfined
concrete compressive stress f co ' of the original section in case of using
one-, two- or three-sided jackets and,
f cj ' is the unconfined concrete compressive stress of the jacket.
In case of ignoring the confining effect of the jacket, Eq. (2.1a) should be modified,
as per Eq. (2.1b)
[( ' ( ) )]
0.85
( f co Ago − Asto + f yo Asto )
Pu ≤ φ Pn = φχ ' ( ) (2.1b)
+ 0.85 f cj Agj − Astj + f yj Astj
where
f co ' is the unconfined concrete compressive stress of the original section.
Equation (2.1)a, b can be further detailed for the three types of jackets as shown
in Tables 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3.
Table 2.1 Design equations for different structural concrete jackets

Type of Sketch Design Equation
Jacket
Concrete Four-Sided Equation (2.1a)
Jacket Jacket—Confined (for circular
concrete sections) and
Eq. (2.1b) (for
rectangular
sections)
Three-Sided Equation (2.1b)

Jacket
Two-Sided Jacket Equation (2.1b)
One-Sided Jacket Not accepted
Accepted
depending on
design
requirements
and column
dimensions
Equation (2.1b)
50
Table 2.2 Design equations for different structural steel jackets

Type of Jacket Sketch Design Equation
Equation (2.1) a or b, f cj' = 0
Structural Steel Jacket Four-Sided Jacket—Confined Pu ≤ φ Pn =
concrete [( ( ) ) ]
go
' A − A
φχ 0.85 f cc sto + f yo Asto + f yj Astj
Astj : Area of the four steel angles
f yj : Yield stress of the structural steel angles
Three-Sided Jacket Pu ≤ φ Pn =
[( ( ) ) ]
go
' A − A
φχ 0.85 f co sto + f yo Asto + f yj Astj
Astj : Area of the two steel angles and two steel
plates
f yj : Yield stress of the structural steel angles and
plates
Two-Sided Jacket Pu ≤ φ Pn =
[( ( ) ) ]
go
' A − A
φχ 0.85 f co sto + f yo Asto + f yj Astj
Astj : Area of the four steel plates
f yj : Yield stress of the structural steel plates
One-Sided Jacket Refer to the accepted shapes in Table 2.1

2 Strengthening of Concrete Columns
Table 2.3 Design equations for different structural FRP jackets
Type of Jacket Sketch Design equation
Equation (2.1a) with f cj' = 0 and Astj = 0
2.2 Design of Jacketed Column Capacity
Structural FRP Jacket Four-Sided Jacket—Confined concrete Pu ≤ φ Pn =

[( ( ) )]
go
' A − A
φχ 0.85 f cc sto + f yo Asto
Three-Sided Jacket, Two-Sided Jacket or One-Sided Jacket Not allowed

51
2.2.2 Columns Subjected to Axial Load and Bending

Moments
Concrete sections subjected to axial force and bending moments can be designed
using an equivalent concrete compressive strength representing the strength of the
RC jacket and the confined strength of the original section when using circular or
four-sided concrete jacket. It is the equivalent concrete compressive strength to be
used in checking the capacity of the section under different straining actions can be
calculated as per Eq. (2.2a). The confinement effect provided by the jacket may be
ignored when using four-sided concrete jacket due to its limited transverse strength
and in this case the equivalent concrete strength shall be calculated using Eq. (2.2b).
When using four-sided steel jacket or FRP jacket, the confined concrete compressive
strength, f' cc , should be used in the design; while the uniaxial concrete compressive
strength, f' co , is used for one-, two- or three-sided steel jackets. Moment interaction
diagrams are then used to design/check the strengthened concrete sections using the
assigned concrete strength, as per Table 2.4.
f c' (equivalent)
Area of the original section × f cc' + Area of the concrete jacket × f cj'
=
Total area of the enlarged concrete section
(2.2a)
f c' (equivalent)
Area of the original section × f co' + Area of the concrete jacket × f cj'
= (2.2b)
Total area of the enlarged concrete section
2.2.3 Calculation of Confined Concrete Compressive Stress
Concrete confinement of the original concrete section is provided by the jacket and
is calculated based on the transverse stiffness of the jacket. As the jacket stiffness
in the transverse direction increases, confinement of the concrete area increases.
This confinement results in an increase in both the concrete compressive strength
and ultimate strain. The concrete area affected by jacket confinement is the largest
for circular sections, followed by square sections and the smallest for rectangular
sections. Confinement of rectangular concrete cross-sections is further reduced with
the increase of its aspect ratio or the increase of the long dimension of the column
section, as shown in Fig. 2.15. The confined concrete areas are initiated at the corners
of the column cross-section, as represented in the figure by the shaded areas with
dark gray. The figure shows the confinement provided by concrete jacket; however,
the same concept applies for steel and CFRP jackets.
Table 2.4 Recommended

Type of Jacket Concrete Compressive Strength
concrete strength for
strengthened sections design Circular concrete f c ' (equivalent) (Eq. 2.2a)
Four-sided concrete f c ' (equivalent) (Eq. 2.2b)
One-, Two- or Three-sided f co ' for the original column,
concrete and f cj ' for the jacketa
Four-sided steel jacket and f cc '
FRP jacket
One-, Two- or Three-sided f co '
steel jacket
a Analysis of concrete section using layers of concrete with
different properties is recommended since the direction of the

bending moment shall result in compression on concrete parts with
different grades, as shown in Fig. 2.14a for sections subjected to
single bending moment and Fig. 2.14b for sections subjected to
double bending moments. Layered analysis of concrete sections
can be found in many textbooks (Park and Paulay 1975) and can
be easily implemented in the finite element analysis
Compression Mx
Existing Existing
column (fco’) column (fco’)
N
My N
Jacket, (fcj’) Jacket, (fcj’)
Tension
Tension
Compression
a) Cross section subjected to axial load and single bending moment
Mx
Existing
column (fco’)
N
Jacket, (fcj’) My
b) Cross section subjected to axial load and double bending moment
Fig. 2.14 Strengthened sections with concrete jacket subjected to axial load and or bending moment
in one or two directions
Jacket Confined concrete Unconfined concrete
Fig. 2.15 Confinement of different jacketed concrete sections
Concrete confinement is not uniform along the height of the jacketed columns.
The provided confinement by the RC jacket is mainly due to the tensile stress in the
closed outer steel stirrups in the jacket, while the confinement provided by the tensile
strength of the concrete in the jacket is ignored. Therefore, the confinement provided
by the RC jacket is reduced between the steel stirrups of the concrete jacket along
the column height.
Likewise, the confinement provided by either CFRP or steel jackets is reduced
between the CFRP laminates or steel plates, as shown in Fig. 2.16. This further
reduction in the concrete confinement should be considered in the calculations of
the confined concrete strength of the original section. For steel and CFRP jackets
and in case that the CFRP laminates or steel plates are not intermittent and the entire
column height is covered, this further reduction in the confined concrete strength
does not exist.
The stress–strain behavior of confined concrete is given in Fig. 2.17 by Mander
et al. (1988) for sections confined with steel reinforcement. In this case, the confined
compressive strength, f cc' , is calculated by Eq. (2.3).
Confined concrete
Unconfined concrete
Concrete Jacket
Steel Jacket
CFRP Jacket
Concrete Jacket Steel Jacket CFRP Jacket
Fig. 2.16 Confinement along the jacketed column height

Confined
f ’cc concrete
Compressive stress, fc
f ’co
Unconfined
concrete
Ec
Esec
εt
f ’t ε co ε cc ε cu
Compressive strain, ε c
Fig. 2.17 Stress–strain behavior of confined concrete (Mander et al. 1988)
[ / ]
7.94 f l' f l'
f cc' = f co' −1.254 + 2.254 1 + − 2 (2.3)
f co' f co'
where f co' is the unconfined concrete compressive strength in MPa and f l' is the
effective lateral confining pressure given by Eq. (2.4).
f l' = f l ke (2.4)
Ae
ke = (2.5)
Acc
Acc = Ac (1 − ρcc ) (2.6)
f l' is the lateral pressure from the transverse reinforcement assumed to be uniformly
distributed over the surface of the concrete core; ke is the confinement effectiveness
coefficient; Ae is the area of effectively confined concrete core; Ac is the area of
the core section enclosed by center line of the perimeter hoop or spiral; ρcc is the
ratio of longitudinal reinforcement to area of the core of section. Figure 2.18 shows
the arching action that is assumed to occur between the levels of transverse circular
reinforcement. The area of ineffectively confined concrete is illustrated in the figure,
midway between the levels of the transverse reinforcement.
Different expressions exist for the calculation of the confined concrete compres-
sive strength. The ACI 440.2-R17 recommends the formula given by Eq. (2.7) to
calculate the confined concrete stress under lateral pressure for sections confined
with FRP.
Fig. 2.18 Effectively

confined concrete core for Ineffectively
circular hoop reinforcement confined core
Effectively
confined core
s s’
B B
A A
ds-0.5 s’
ds-0.5 s’
ds
ds
Section A-A Section B-B
f cc' = f co' + 3.3υ f l' (2.7)
where υ is a reduction factor depending on the material used for confinement. υ

equals to 1.0 for concrete or steel jackets and is equal to 0.95 for FRP jackets as will
be explained later.
2.3 Unified Design Method for Columns’ Jackets
Despite that the properties of concrete, steel and FRP are quite different as steel is
an elasto-plastic and ductile material, while FRP is perfectly elastic and brittle mate-
rial, unified approach can be used for the design of strengthened concrete columns
subjected to axial load with or without uni- or biaxial bending moment. The general
formula for design of those sections is given in Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2).
In order to unify the calculation of confined concrete strength for columns
strengthened with concrete, steel or FRP jackets, Eq. (2.3) by Mander et al., 1988 is
compared to that of the ACI 440.2 R-17 and given by Eq. (2.7). The key variables
considered in the study included spacing between stirrups (s), unconfined concrete
stress (f co ), longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio and diameter of concrete section
(d). Results of the comparison are shown in Fig. 2.19a–d.
The analysis indicates that the ACI 440.2 R-17 expression is slightly conservative
compared to Mander et al. 1988 approach. The confined concrete stress calculated by
the ACI 440.2 R-17 is 10–15% lower than that calculated by the expression given by
Mander et al. (1988). It is therefore recommended to Eq. (2.7) in the calculation of
the confined concrete compressive strength whether these sections are confined with
reinforced concrete jackets, steel collars or FRP sheets. The expression in Eq. (2.7)
2.3 Unified Design Method for Columns’ Jackets 57
Fig. 2.19 Confined concrete stress predicted using Mander et al. (1988) and ACI 440.2R-17
can be applied for circular or rectangular sections as shown in the following sections,
noting that “υ” equals 1.0 for steel and concrete jackets.
2.3.1 Circular Sections
Concrete confinement of the existing column section is provided by the hoop or spiral
steel stirrups provided in the concrete jacket, while it is provided by the external steel
plates or FRP wrapping for the other types of jackets. Concrete confinement provided
by the steel stirrups of the original section may be ignored due to the uncertainties
inherited in the amount and distribution of the transverse reinforcement inside the
column.
For circular sections, with transverse reinforcement in the concrete jacket, the area
of an effectively confined concrete core at midway between the levels of transverse
reinforcement can be expressed by Eq. (2.8). Equations (2.9), (2.10) and (2.11) show
the concrete area enclosed by the center line of the circular hoops or spiral and the
effective lateral confining pressure for circular columns.
( ) ( )
π s' 2 π s' 2
Ae = dj − = dj2 1 − (2.8)
4 2 4 2dj
π 2
Acc = d (1 − ρcc ) (2.9)
4 j
Ajt f jt 1
f l' = 2ke = ke ρj f jt (2.10)
ds s 2
( '
)2
1 − 2ds s
where for hoops : ke = (2.11)
(1 − ρcc )
where d j is the diameter of the transverse reinforcement inside the jacket, s' is the
clear spacing between transverse reinforcement, Ajt is the area of the transverse
reinforcement enclosed by the concrete jacket, f jt is the yield stress of the transverse
reinforcement, s is the center-to-center spacing of circular hoop and ρj is the ratio of
the volume of transverse confining steel to the volume of confined concrete core.
For concrete columns strengthened with steel collars, the confining pressure, f l ' ,
can be estimated by Eq. (2.10), while Ajt is the area of the steel collars, f jt is the
yield stress of the steel collars, s is the center-to-center spacing between collars, s’ is
the clear spacing between collars and d s is taken equal to d, the diameter of circular
section.
For concrete columns wrapped with FRP laminates, the confining pressure, f l ' ,
can be estimated by Eq. (2.10), while Ajt is the area of the FRP sheets/mm (Af ) =
n t f , where n is the number of FRP plies and t f is the thickness of each ply, f jt is
the design ultimate tensile strength of the FRP noted as f fu in the ACI 440.2 R-17,
ke is 0.55, s' is equal to 1.0 for continuous wrapping and d s is taken equal to d, the
diameter of circular section. Therefore, Eq. (2.10) is expressed as per Eq. (2.12) for
sections with FRP wrapping.
Af f fu
f l' = 2ke for continuous FRP wrapping (2.12)
d
Example 2.1 A concrete circular column of diameter 600 mm is subjected to an ulti-

mate normal force of 3500 kN and an ultimate moment of 300 kN m. The unconfined
concrete compressive strength of the column is 20 MPa based on statistical analysis
using core tests as per ACI 214.4-R10. The column is reinforced with 10 longitudinal
bars of 20 mm diameter with yield stress of 420 MPa, as shown in Fig. 2.20. It is
Fig. 2.20 Example of

circular column
f c’ = 20 MPa
f y = 420 MPa
Diameter = 600mm
As = 10 D 20 mm
Clear cover = 40 mm
required to calculate if the column requires strengthening and investigate different

strengthening schemes using:
(1) concrete jacket, (2) steel collars and (3) externally bonded CFRP sheets.
Answer
First, it is required to construct the axial load–bending moment interaction diagram
of the column cross-section. For the purpose of evaluating the column strength, the
reduction factors proposed for evaluation of concrete elements given in the ACI318-
19 and presented in Table 1.5 are used. Accordingly, the interaction diagram of the
concrete section is given in Fig. 2.21. The outer dotted line in the figure represents
the ultimate capacity of the section using reduction factors equal to 1.0, while the
inner solid line represents the safety limit of the section. The applied load on the
column is shown in the figure with a red circle, where it is concluded that the column
is inadequate to resist the applied loads and strengthening of the column is required.
(1) Strengthening of the column using 70 mm concrete jacket with f ' c = 45 MPa
and stirrups of T12-every 100 mm with yield stress of 420 MPa and concrete
cover of 40 mm.
Using Equations (2.10) and (2.11) and the section properties given in
Figure 2.22, the following results can be obtained.
π
Ajt = 4 (12)
2
= 113 mm2
ds = (600 + 2 × 70) – (2 × 40 + 12) = 648 mm
s’ = 100 - 12 = 88 mm
ke = 0.88 (Eq. 2.11)
f l’ = 1.29 MPa (Eq. 2.10)
f’cc = 24.25 MPa (Eq. 2.7)
f c' equivalent = 282743x24.25+147340x45
430084 = 31 MPa (Eq. 2.2)
φ = 1.0
φ Factor for structure evaluation,

as per Table 1.5
Fig. 2.21 Interaction diagram of the 600 mm circular column
f c’ equivalent = 31 MPa
f y = 420 MPa
Diameter = 740mm
As (longitudinal) = 10 D 20 mm
Clear cover to longitudinal steel = 110 mm
As (transverse) = One 12 mm diameter every 100 mm
Fig. 2.22 Analyzed strengthened section
Using the equivalent concrete compressive strength of 31 MPa and the low
reduction factors depicted for new design, as per the ACI318-19 and given in
Table 1.5, the section with concrete jacket is analyzed and the axial load–bending
moment interaction diagram is drawn in Figure 2.23.
It can be seen that the column is adequate to resist the applied loads, where
the red circle representing the applied loads is within the safety limit of the
section. It should be noted that in this case, the interaction diagram neglects the
longitudinal steel reinforcement of the jacket.
φ = 1.0
φ Factor for new design,

as per Table 1.5
Fig. 2.23 Interaction diagram of the circular column strengthened with concrete jacket
It should be noted that the enlarged column should be remodeled in the 3D

finite element model of the building under consideration using the enlarged
section dimensions (740 mm diameter) and elastic modulus of concrete of f ’ c
= 31 MPa. The resulting straining actions acting on the column should be
checked accordingly since it is expected to change after the increase of the
column stiffness.
(2) Strengthening of the column using 150 × 10 mm steel collars spaced at 400 mm,
with f yj = 345 MPa. Using Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11), the following results can be
obtained.
Ajt = 150 × 10 = 1500 mm2

ds = = d = 600 mm
s’ = 400 − 150 = 250 mm
ke = 0.63 (Eq. 2.11)
f l’ = 2.7 MPa (Eq. 2.10)
f’cc = 29 MPa (Eq. 2.7)
Using the equivalent concrete compressive strength of 29 MPa and the reduc-
tion factors for new design, as per the ACI318-19 and given in Table 1.5, the
axial load–bending moment interaction diagram is drawn in Figure 2.24. It can
φ = 1.0
φ Factor for new design,

as per Table 1.5
Fig. 2.24 Interaction diagram of the circular column strengthened with steel collars of 150 ×
10 mm spaced at 400 mm
be seen that the column is adequate to resist the applied loads, where the red
circle representing the applied loads is within the safety limit of the section. The
analysis ignores any contribution of the steel collars to the axial column capacity
since there are no longitudinal steel sections used in the jacket. The strength-
ened column section should be modeled in the 3D finite element model of the
building under consideration using the elastic modulus of confined concrete of
f ' c = 29 MPa. The resulting straining actions acting on the column should be
checked accordingly.
(3) Strengthening of the column using three continuous plies of externally bonded
CFRP sheets with E f = 65 GPa, f fu = 700 MPa and t f = 1.0 mm. Using
Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11), the following results can be obtained.
Ajt = (Af ) = 3 × 1 × 1.0 = 3 mm2

ds = = d = 600 mm
s’ = 1 mm
ke = 0.55 ACI 440.2 R-17
f l’ = 3.85 MPa (Eq. 2.10)
f’cc = 20 + 3.3 × 0.95 × 3.85 = 32.0 MPa (Eq. 2.7)
Fig. 2.25 Interaction diagram of the strengthened column using three plies of CFRP sheets
The column is adequate using an equivalent compressive strength of 32 MPa

as depicted in the interaction diagram given in Figure 2.25. Again, the strength-
ened column section should be modeled in the 3D finite element model of the
building under consideration using the elastic modulus of confined concrete
of f’c = 32 MPa. The resulting straining actions acting on the column should
be checked accordingly. Different strengthening schemes for the column are
illustrated in Figure 2.26.
2.3.2 Rectangular Sections
Confinement of rectangular concrete sections provided by transverse reinforcement

is much more complicated and less effective than that of the circular sections.
Figure 2.27 shows the arching action that is assumed to occur in rectangular columns
at both the cross-section level and along the column height. The effectively confined
area of concrete at stirrups level is found by subtracting the area of the parabolas
containing the ineffectively confined concrete (Mander et al. 1988). The total area
of effectively confined concrete at the level of stirrups where “n” is the number of
longitudinal bars tied with stirrups is:
Fig. 2.26 Different strengthening schemes for the circular column (Example 2.1)
( )( )( )
∑n
wi2 s' s'
Ae = bc h c − 1− 1− (2.13)
i=1
6 2bc 2h c
where bc and hc are the core dimensions to centerline of perimeter stirrup in x- and
y-directions, respectively.
Effectively Ineffectively
confined core confined core
w
s s’
h c – s’
B B
hc
bc A A
Section A-A bc-0.5 s’

bc
Section B-B
Fig. 2.27 Effectively confined core for rectangular sections

( )( )( )
∑n
wi2 s' s' 1
ke = 1 − 1− 1− (2.14)
i=1
6bc h c 2bc 2h c (1 − ρcc )
Asx
ρx = (2.15)
sh c
Asy
ρy = (2.16)
sbc
where Asx and Asy are the total area of transverse bars running in x- and y-directions,
respectively.
Accordingly, the effective lateral confining stress on the concrete can be expressed
as:
Asx
flx' = ke f yh (2.17)
sdc
Asy
fly' = ke f yh (2.18)
sbc
Knowing flx' and fly' , the effective lateral pressure fl' can be determined using
Fig. 2.28 and the confined concrete compressive strength can be determined using
the generalized equation of confinement, Eq. (2.7) where υ is a reduction factor and
can be taken as 1.0.
The original column transverse reinforcement should not be considered in the
calculation of the confined concrete strength. On the other hand, the transversal steel
Fig. 2.28 Confined strength determination from lateral confining stresses for rectangular sections
(Mander et al. 1988)
stirrups provided in the rectangular concrete jacket shall result in little confinement
effect of the original concrete section. For steel- and FRP-strengthened concrete
columns, the confining pressure, ( f l' ), shall be calculated using the concept presented
by Mander et al. (1988), which can be further explained in the next section.
It is worth mentioning that the confinement effect of the concrete jacketed columns
may be ignored due to its small effect. In this case, the axial strength of the column
should be calculated using Eq. (2.1b), while the equivalent concrete strength may be
calculated using Eq. (2.2b) to check the column safety when subjected to axial load
and bending moments. Modeling of the strengthened column using the enlarged
section dimensions and f l' (equivalent) has to be considered in the finite element
analysis.
2.3.2.1 Calculation of the Confining Pressure in Rectangular Columns
For columns strengthened with steel jackets comprising of longitudinal steel angles
at the corners and four batten plates welded to the angels forming closed section
at the perimeter of the column, as shown in Fig. 2.29, the Eurocode 8 (CEN 2003)
recommends to account for the concrete confinement effect provided by the steel
batten plates and ignore the vertical contribution of the steel angles to the axial
capacity of the strengthened column. In this case, the confined concrete compressive
strength is used in the calculation of the axial column strength.
The Eurocode 8 (CEN 2003) specifies that the spacing between two successive
steel battens should not exceed b/2, where b is the smaller section dimension of
the column. For the case of rectangular columns with high aspect ratio, it needs to
L1 2L2 L1
Steel
Batten
angle
L1 plates
t2
b s2
2L2
s
t1
L1
b A A
Angle L1 x t1
Batten
Plates (thickness = t2)
Section A-A Elevation
Fig. 2.29 Strengthening of rectangular columns using steel angles and battens
diminish the free length between the steel battens by means of steel bars crossing
the structural member to tighten the two opposed battens. Eurocode 8 (CEN 2003)
specifies that the minimum mechanical percentage of transverse steel battens, ωs ,
in pitch s, necessary to achieve strength and ductility for low (L), medium (M) and
high (H) ductility classes should be at least 0.07, 0.11 and 0.13, respectively. The
mechanical ratio of steel battens ωs is defined as follows:
f ydb
ws = ρs (2.19)
f cd
4t2 s2
ρs = (2.20)
bs
B = 2L 1 + 2L 2 (2.21)
where f cd and f ydb are the design strength of concrete and steel battens and can be
taken as 0.8 f cu and f y /1.15, respectively.
In a recent research by Campione, 2013, an analytical model for the design of
axially loaded strengthened RC columns with steel angles and battens is developed.
The model considers the contribution in confinement pressures caused by transverse
battens and steel angles and the contribution in terms of the load-carrying capacity
of steel angles subjected to axial force and bending moments.
For square sections of side length, b, strengthened with batten plates and four steel
angles at the corners, the lateral confining pressure can be estimated using Eq. (2.13)
and rearranged as per Eq. (2.22).
⎧ ( )⎫( )
2 (b − 2L 1 )2 s ' 2 S2 t2 f y
fl' = 1− 1− x2 (2.22)
3 b2 2b bS
where L 1 is the steel angle side length, S 2 and t 2 are the width and thickness of the
batten plates, respectively, and f y is the yield stress of the batten plates. The confined
concrete compressive strength can be calculated using Eq. (2.7) and using υ = 1.0.
For square columns strengthened with concrete jacket as shown in Fig. 2.30, the
confinement effect will result from the stirrups in the concrete jacket. No contribution
from the concrete jacket itself will be considered in increasing the confinement effect
as the jacket might be cracked. The lateral confinement pressure f l' can be expressed
as per Eq. (2.23).
⎧ ( )⎫( )
' 2 (bS − 2r )2 s ' 2 Astr f y
f l = 1− 1− x2 (2.23)
3 bS2 2bS bs S
where bs is the side length of the stirrup inside the jacket, s' is the clear spacing
between stirrups of the jacket, S is the center line to center line spacing between
the stirrups, r is the radius of chamfer at the column corners, Astr is the area of the
Fig. 2.30 Strengthening of

square columns using RC
Jacket
stirrups inside the concrete jacket and f y is the yield strength of the stirrups inside
the concrete jacket.
For square columns strengthened with fully wrapped FRP jackets (s' = 0), the same
unified approach for confinement as presented before can be used as per Eqs. (2.24)
and (2.25).
⎧ ( )⎫( )
2 (b − 2r )2 s ' 2 E f nt f S ∈fe
fl' = 1− 1− x2 (2.24)
3 b2 2b bS
⎧ ( )⎫
2 (b − 2r )2 E f nt f ∈fe
fl' = 1 − x2 (2.25)
3 b2 b
where E f is the elastic modulus of FRP, n is the number of plies, t f is the thickness
of each ply and εfe is the effective strain in FRP and is equal to 0.55 εfu
ACI 440.2-R17 provides conservative design guidelines for columns with aspect
ratio less than 2.0 and column dimensions not exceeding 900 mm. An equivalent
circular section of diameter, d, can be estimated as per Eq. (2.26).
( )0.5
d = b2 + h 2 (2.26)
where b and h are the dimensions of the rectangular column section.

The confined concrete compressive strength, f cc ' , is calculated using Eq. (2.7) and
the effective lateral pressure, f l ' , is calculated using Eq. (2.12) for continuous FRP
wrapping. For FRP-strengthened rectangular or square sections, ke = 0.55 and υ is
equal to 0.95.
( )
Ae h 0.5
ka = (2.27)
Ac b
{ }
b/ h(h−2r )2 +h/b(b−2r )2
Ae 1− 3A g
= (2.28)
Ac 1 − ρg
E f nt f ∈fe
fl' = ka x2 (2.29)
d
For square section, with b = h, Eq. (2.29) can be expressed in Eq. (2.30).
⎧ ( )⎫
2 (b − 2r )2 E f nt f ∈fe
fl' = 1− 2
x2 (2.30)
3 b d
where r is the radius of chamfer at the column corners. Requirements of ACI 440.2
R-17 as far as ultimate concrete strain and serviceability requirements shall be strictly
followed. It shall be noted that Eq. (2.30) takes the same format as Eq. (2.25) with
the replacement of b in Eq. (2.25) by d in Eq. (2.30).
2.3.2.2 Parameters Affecting the Confining Pressure in Rectangular

Columns
The effect of confinement was further investigated on a typical square column of 600
× 600 mm. Different key parameters are studied including:
a. Column dimensions, b (varied from 400 to 1200 mm)
b. Spacing of batten steel plates, S (varied from 200 to 600 mm)
c. Dimension of the corner angle, L 1 (varied from 50 to 150 mm).
Figures 2.31, 2.32 and 2.33 show the influence of different parameters on the
confined concrete strength of square columns strengthened with steel plates. It was
observed that increasing the column dimension, b, while keeping the same configu-
ration of the batten plates reduces the lateral confined pressure, f l' , and hence reduces
the confined concrete compressive strength. Doubling the column dimensions from
400 to 800 mm reduces the confined concrete strength by around 10% as shown in
Fig. 2.31. Such an effect reduces by increasing the concrete original compressive
strength.
On the other hand, reducing the spacing between batten plates has a considerable
beneficial effect on the lateral confined pressure and the confined concrete compres-
sive strength. For a 600 mm square column, reducing the spacing between batten
plates from 600 to 300 mm, which is equivalent to b/2 as recommended by Eurocode
8 (CEN 2003) increases the confined concrete compressive strength by around 15%
as illustrated in Fig. 2.32.
The dimensions of the corner angle, L 1 , have a minor effect on the confinement of
square columns as depicted in Fig. 2.33. Increasing L 1 from 50 to 150 mm increases
the confined concrete compressive strength by less than 6%.
Figures 2.34, 2.35 and 2.36 show the influence of different parameters on the
confined concrete strength of square columns strengthened with RC Jacket.
60
55 S =300 mm
fcu =30 MPa
50 fy =345 MPa
S2 =100 mm
45 t2 =10 mm
L1 =100 mm
fcuc (MPa)
40
35
30
25
20
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
b (mm)
Fig. 2.31 Influence of column dimensions
60
b =600 mm
55 fcu =30 MPa
fy =345 MPa
50 S2 = 100 mm
t2 =10 mm
45 L1 =100 mm
fcuc (MPa)
40
35
30
25
20
200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
S (mm)
Fig. 2.32 Influence of batten plate

60
55 b =600 mm
fcu =30 MPa
50 fy =345 MPa
S2 = 100
t2 =10 mm
45
fcuc (MPa)
40
35
30
25
20
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
L1 (mm)
Fig. 2.33 Influence of angle length
Fig. 2.34 Influence of column dimension

Fig. 2.35 Influence of jacket stirrup spacing
60
b =600 mm
55
fcu =30 MPa
ØS =16 mm
50 fy =420 MPa
S =100 mm
45 tj =100 mm
fcuc (MPa)
40
35
30
25
20
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
r (mm)
Fig. 2.36 Influence of chamfer radius, r

Three different parameters are investigated including:

a. Column dimensions, b (varied from 400 to 1200 mm)
b. Spacing between stirrups in the concrete jacket, S (varied from 50 to 130 mm)
c. Chamfer radius, r, (varied from 30 to 110 mm).
Column dimensions and spacing of the confining stirrups inside the concrete
jacket are proven to be the most important parameters governing the confinement
level in square concrete columns strengthened with RC jacket. It shall be noted
that stirrups inside the concrete jacket are the only source providing confinement
to square concrete columns. Confinement is highly pronounced in smaller concrete
columns of dimensions less than 600 mm as shown in Fig. 2.34. Increasing the
column dimensions will require closely spaced stirrups of large diameter bars to
achieve an acceptable confinement level, which might be impractical in real appli-
cations. Therefore, it is recommended that confinement can be ignored for columns
larger than 800 mm. Reducing the spacing between confining stirrups has a consid-
erable beneficial effect on the lateral confined pressure and the confined concrete
compressive strength. For a 600 mm square column, reducing the spacing between
stirrups from 150 to 50 mm increases the confined concrete compressive strength by
around 25% as illustrated in Fig. 2.35.
The chamfer radius, r, has a minor effect on the confinement of square columns as
depicted in Fig. 2.36. Increasing r from 50 to 100 mm increases the confined concrete
compressive strength by less than 5%. Such an effect diminishes by increasing the
concrete original compressive strength.
This indicates that Mander et al. 1988 confinement model can be applied for
calculating the confined concrete strength for square columns strengthened either
with steel, concrete or FRP jackets. Such an effect results in conservative values for
f cc ' predicted using ACI 440.2-R17 by around 13–20%.
Example 2.2 A square concrete column of dimensions 300 × 300 mm is subjected

to the following ultimate straining actions:
• Pu = 50 tons
• Mx = 10 mt
• My = 10 mt.
Check the adequacy of the column if f cu = 25 MPa using ACI 318–14.
Answer
The column is modeled on ETABS, and design of the section was conducted under
the given straining actions using ACI 318–14. The column was found inadequate
with Design-to-Capacity Ratio, D/C of 2.8.
The eccentricity divided by the column dimension in this example (e/t) is 0.667.
Therefore, big eccentricity (tension failure) is dominant and hence, FRP strength-
ening will not be used. Two strengthening schemes will be investigated using either
structural steel batten plates or concrete jacket.
Strengthening Scheme, I
The column is strengthened with structural steel batten plates of dimensions 80 ×
6 mm spaced at 150 mm C.L. to C.L. Four angles measuring 100 × 100 × 10 mm
are used at the four corners. The yield strength of the structural steel is 345 MPa.
Equation (2.22) was used to evaluate the lateral confinement pressure, f l' considering
the following:
• b = 300 mm
• t 2 = 6 mm
• S 2 = 80 mm
• S = 150 mm
• S ' = 70 mm
• f y = 345 MPa.
The lateral confining pressure, f l' , was found to be 5.37 MPa.
Using Eq. (2.7), the confined concrete compressive strength was found to be
42.7 MPa.
The column cross-section was modeled on ETABS using section designer and
accounting for the four angles at the corners. Design of the section was conducted
under the given straining actions using ACI 318–14. The column was found adequate
Strengthening Scheme, II
The column is strengthened with RC jacket of 70 mm thick. The compressive strength
of the jacket was set to 35 MPa. The jacket is reinforced with 12T12. Equation (2.23)
was used to evaluate the lateral confinement pressure, f l' considering the following:
• ϕs = 10 mm
• t j = 70 mm
• r = 50 mm
• S = 150 mm
• S ' = 140 mm
• f y = 420 MPa.
The lateral confining pressure, f l' , was found to be 0.54 MPa. Using Eq. (2.7), the
confined concrete compressive strength was found to be 26.8 MPa.
The column cross-section was modeled on ETABS using section designer, and
design of the section was conducted under the given straining actions using ACI
318–14. The column was found adequate with Design-to-Capacity Ratio, D/C of
0.63.
Column cross-sections for different strengthening schemes are illustrated in
Fig. 2.37, and the corresponding interaction diagrams are given in Fig. 2.38.
Example 2.3 A square concrete column of dimensions 300 × 300 mm is subjected

to the following ultimate straining actions:
Fig. 2.37 Column cross-sections for different strengthening schemes (Example 2.2)
Original column Column strengthened with steel Column strengthened with RC Jacket
D/C = 2.8 D/C = 0.76 D/C = 0.63
Fig. 2.38 Column interaction diagrams for different strengthening schemes
• Pu = 200 tons
Check the adequacy of the column if f cu = 25 MPa using ACI 318–14.
Answer
The column is modeled on ETABS, and design of the section was conducted under
the given straining actions using ACI 318–14. The column was found inadequate
The eccentricity divided by the column dimension in this example (e/t) is zero.
Therefore, small eccentricity (compression failure) is dominant, and hence, FRP
strengthening will be investigated in addition to the previous two strengthening
schemes described in the previous example.
Strengthening Scheme, I
The column is strengthened with structural steel batten plates of dimensions 80 ×
6 mm spaced at 150 mm C.L. to C.L. Four angles measuring 100 × 100 × 10 mm
are used at the four corners. The yield strength of the structural steel is 345 MPa.
Equation (2.22) was used to evaluate the lateral confinement pressure, f l' considering
the following:
• b = 300 mm
• t 2 = 6 mm
• S 2 = 80 mm
• S = 150 mm
• S ' = 70 mm
• f y = 345 MPa
42.7 MPa.
The column cross-section was modeled on ETABS using section designer and
accounting for the four angles at the corners. Design of the section was conducted
under the given straining actions using ACI 318-14. The column was found adequate
Strengthening Scheme, II
The column is strengthened with RC jacket of 70 mm thick. The compressive strength
of the jacket was set to 35 MPa. The jacket is reinforced with 12T12. Equation (2.23)
was used to evaluate the lateral confinement pressure, f l' considering the following:
• ϕs = 10 mm
• t j = 70 mm
• r = 50 mm
• S = 150 mm
• S ' = 140 mm
• f y = 420 MPa
26.8 MPa.
The column cross-section was modeled on ETABS using section designer, and
design of the section was conducted under the given straining actions using ACI
318-14. The column was found adequate with Design-to-Capacity Ratio, D/C of
0.63.
2.4 Stress Limits Design Recommendations 77
Strengthening Scheme, III

The column is strengthened with four plies of externally bonded CFRP sheets. Equa-
tion (2.12) was used to evaluate the lateral confinement pressure, f l' considering the
following:
• εfu = 0.0152
• E f = 210 GPa
• f fu = 3200 MPa
• k a = 0.7 Eq. (2.24)
• Ae/Ac = 0.7 Eq. (2.25)
• r = 50 mm
• t f =0.29 mm
• n=4
The lateral confining pressure, f l' , , using ACI approach (Eq. 2.30) is 6.72 MPa
and using the unified approach (Eq. 2.25) is 9.5 MPa. Using Eq. (2.7), the confined
concrete compressive strength if using ACI approach is 46 MPa while using the
unified approach is 54.8 MPa, which is 19% higher than predicted using ACI 440.2-
R17. The column cross-section was modeled on ETABS considering the column
compressive strength of 54.8 MPa. Design of the section was conducted under the
given straining actions using ACI 318–14. The column was found inadequate with
Design-to-Capacity Ratio, D/C of 0.85.
Column cross-sections for different strengthening schemes are illustrated in
Fig. 2.39, and the corresponding interaction diagrams are given in Fig. 2.40.
2.4 Stress Limits Design Recommendations
Calculations may show that increase in the concrete confining pressure after jacketing
are increasingly high. This is true when the jacket stiffness is large compared to the
stiffness of the original column. Accordingly, the calculated axial capacity of the orig-
inal column after strengthening will be much higher than that before strengthening,
and therefore, the participation of the original column in carrying the additional axial
loads shall be also high. In this case, it is preferable to put a threshold of the axial
capacity of the original column after strengthening and allow the axial strength of the
jacket to participate in the overall column strength. This may be achieved by limiting
the confined concrete compressive strength, f cc' so that it does not exceed twice the
uniaxial concrete compressive strength of the original column, as per Eq. (2.31). It
is worth noting here that axial strength of the jacket can be included for columns
strengthened with concrete or steel jackets only, while no axial strength exists for
FRP jackets.
f cc' ≤ 2 f c' (2.31)

Fig. 2.39 Column cross-sections for different strengthening schemes (Example 2.3)
At service load, the ACI 440.2R-17 recommends limiting the concrete and steel
stresses below levels that will ensure that no concrete cracking or plastic steel defor-
mations under sustained or cyclic loading shall occur. Table 2.5 gives the limiting
stresses in concrete columns under full service loads.
2.5 Columns Replacement
Concrete columns lacking significant capacity compared to the demand level may
be replaced by adding new vertical members made of concrete or steel to carry
the induced loads. This may be done for small number of columns, while it is not
recommended to replace large number of columns in the structure. It is challenging
to construct reliable connections between the new vertical members and the floors
of the existing structures.
The new columns should be placed so that they can carry all the gravity shearing
forces induced on the floor, as shown in Figs. 2.41 and 2.42 for interior and edge
columns. The new columns should surround the original deficient column in order
to have their share from the gravity loads on the slabs. Columns in this case may
be modeled as pinned columns since fixity of the columns at its top and bottom
will occupy large areas of the floor with impractical drilling in the slabs to provide
the fixation. The new columns shall be designed to carry vertical loads and the
2.5 Columns Replacement 79
Original Column Column Strengthened with steel

D/C = 1.7 D/C = 0.77
Column Strengthened with RC Jacket Column Strengthened with CFRP

D/C = 0.63 D/C = 0.85
Fig. 2.40 Column interaction diagrams for different strengthening schemes
Table 2.5 Allowable service

Member Allowable stress in Allowable stress in
stresses in the original section
steel concrete
Concrete column f s,s ≤ 0.6 f y f c,s ≤ 0.65 f c'
contribution of the original columns, which are replaced by the new columns, to the
capacity of the structure shall be ignored. Meanwhile, the rest of the columns in the
structure, which were not replaced by new ones, shall be checked to sustain both the
vertical and horizontal loads on the structure.
Four steel columns
Fig. 2.41 Replacement of interior column with new steel columns
Original
concrete column
New
concrete column
Fig. 2.42 Replacement of edge column with new concrete column

Façade with
Cracked
Columns
Fig. 2.43 Layout of building
2.6 Case Study 2.1
This case study is for a building, which consists of ground floor, Mezzanine and roof,
in addition to upper roof deck level. The structural system of the floors consists of
reinforced concrete ribbed slab made of RC ribs and hidden beams, in addition to
drop beams, which is supported on columns with dimensions varying from 300 ×
700, 200 × 600 to 200 × 400 mm. The spans between the internal RC columns are
8.0 m; however, the spans between the external columns are 4.0 m. The front façade
of the building is facing south direction, and the building is located on a boulevard,
where an underpass exists in front of the building, as shown in Fig. 2.43.
2.6.1 Problem Description
Cracks were observed at several edge columns during installation of a new stone
cladding at the main façade of the building facing the boulevard. Those cracks
appeared in the concrete and at the interface between edge columns and the block
work (Fig. 2.44).
Material testing showed that the concrete compressive strength was in the range
of 25 MPa. Analysis of the building showed that the columns are safe to tolerate the
applied vertical and horizontal loads, which are induced from the total dead, live,
wind and seismic loads. It was observed that parts of the edge columns located at
the façade line are exposed outside the building, while other parts of the columns are
inside the building (see Fig. 2.45).
Fig. 2.44 Cracks at the edge

column
Fig. 2.45 Schematic of the

façade
Since the structural strength of the columns is adequate to resist the induced loads,
cracks in the columns are attributed to one or more of the following reasons:
1. The building is located on the boulevard with its south façade exposed to the sun
all day long; accordingly, high stresses are induced from the temperature effect;
especially that part of the edge columns is exposed to the ambient temperature,
while the other part is exposed to the conditioned air temperature inside the
building. It is worth noting that the ambient temperature may reach 45 °C in
the summer, while the air temperature inside the building may reach 20 °C.
Figure 2.46 shows the temperature effect on the edge columns, which are directly
exposed to weather. The effect of temperature leads to tension stresses in the
vertical direction, which is restrained by compression in the inner part of the
column, as shown in the figure. These stresses may result in cracks on the surface
of the outer part of the column.
2. It was also observed that a tunnel was executed in the boulevard at the vicinity
of the building façade. Excavation of the tunnel may have resulted in disruption
of the soil beneath the foundations of the building, which could be the reason for
movement of the south façade of the building. This outward movement of the
façade shall result in tensile stresses/cracks in the edge columns.
3. The in-situ tests of the concrete columns showed that a concrete cover of more
than 60 mm thick exists at different locations of the columns. This large concrete
cover, when exposed to change in temperature, shall result in surface cracks
separating the cover from the core of the columns.
2.6.2 Concrete Repair
Before commencement of the repair works of the edge concrete columns, enough
data was collected to ensure that there is no movement of the building. This data was
verified through continuous monitoring of the façade deformations. After ensuring
that cracks’ widths are not increasing, edge columns were repaired. The repair work
was carried out by injecting the cracks using low-viscous epoxy. Concrete repair work
of the columns to resist the additional stresses induced by temperature variations was
applied using carbon fiber reinforced polymer, (CFRP), sheets, as per Fig. 2.47.
Two layers of the sheets were applied with the fibers in the transverse and longi-
tudinal directions. The purpose of applying the fibers was to arrest the cracks and
stop further propagation of cracks. Periodic inspection was made to check the struc-
tural condition of concrete columns at the façade, especially during summer, where
temperature is at its peak.
84
Fig. 2.46 Induced stresses in the edge columns due to temperature

2 Strengthening of Concrete Columns
Fig. 2.47 Column

strengthening with CFRP
Transverse
CFRP
Sheets
Longitudinal
CFRP
Sheets
Chapter 3
Beam Strengthening
Structural engineer should investigate the existing concrete members and collect
all possible information to diagnose the safety and serviceability conditions before
commencement of any repair or strengthening procedure. The amount of steel corro-
sion, member deformation, deflections, cracking, vibration, material defects and
member capacity should be identified in order to choose the best rehabilitation
scheme. The rehabilitation process should start with repair of the existing members
including removal of steel corrosion, steel protection and crack injection, possibly
rectifying member deformations/deflections, and maintain good quality concrete.
The concrete substrate should be cleaned from any loose material or debris, and
the jacket should be installed on rough and sound surface. The concrete roughness
shall be reached using either sand blasting, water blasting or equipment producing
low vibration. No sledge hammer or pneumatic hammer of large weight (more than
10 kg) should be used in order not to create surface/internal cracks in the concrete
substrate.
Several strengthening methods can be used to improve the beam capacity, stiffness
or serviceability, which include concrete, steel or FRP jackets. Concrete jackets may
be reinforced or prestressed, which in turn could be post-tensioned or externally
applied. Steel plates or sections may be used to strengthen the concrete beams,
which may be chemically or preferably mechanically bonded to the concrete surface.
Mechanical bond between the substrate and the jacket is provided using anchor bolts
or steel dowels. FRP jackets may be applied using externally bonded laminates
or near-surface-mounted reinforcement. FRP laminates or bars may be made of
carbon, glass, aramid or basalt fibers, while chemically bonded to the concrete using
adhesives such as epoxies or vinylester. The short-term and long-term characteristics
of the jacket material should be compatible with the material of the substrate in order
to avoid peeling, flaking, chipping or disintegration of any form due to change in
temperature, humidity, ultraviolet radiation or other environmental conditions. In
both cases, bond should be able to transfer the interfacial shear to utilize the full
structural capacity of the jacket.
88 3 Beam Strengthening
3.1 Concrete Jacket
It is preferable that concrete material of the jacket has the same type of aggregate and
with compressive strength higher than or at least equal to that of the original concrete
member. Concrete should have low shrinkage and preferably self-consolidated since
the steel reinforcement ratio in the jacket is usually high. The substrate shall be
roughened to at least 5 mm amplitude in order to increase the friction between the
old and new concrete. Installing the steel dowels shall be carried out using epoxy
adhesives in predrilled holes with diameter of 2–4 mm larger than that of the dowels
including the bar deformations. The drilled holes should avoid the location of the
existing steel bars and should be cleaned from dust or loose material. Quality control
should be implemented by testing the installed anchors randomly and measure its
pull-out force. The steel cage shall be fixed, and the jacket shall be cast in a formwork
using either the form-and-pump technique, shotcrete or self-consolidated concrete
with 9 mm maximum aggregate size.
3.1.1 Reinforced Concrete Jacket
Figure 3.1 shows typical details for flexural and shear beam strengthening using
concrete jacket. The overall concrete section is increased in dimensions in addition to
the internal steel reinforcement including the longitudinal bottom, top and transverse
bars. Part of the bottom longitudinal steel reinforcement should be planted in the
columns to comprehend the arching action behavior. In case that top reinforcement
is needed to increase the moment capacity above the supporting columns, steel bars
shall be placed in the top concrete overlay outside the beam section to avoid the
column location, as shown in the figure.
For shear strengthening, the stirrups should be extended in the concrete compres-
sion zone in order to realize its full capacity. The stirrups shall penetrate through the
existing concrete flange and be embedded in the newly cast overlay after bending
each leg to achieve the required lap length of the steel bars. In case that no top
concrete overlay is used, planting the stirrups in the top flange only shall not allow
full utilization of the stirrup capacity. It is then recommended to anchor each leg
of the stirrups using a nut, as shown in the figure. The nut should develop the full
force in the stirrup leg. The exposed steel bars and the nuts should be protected from
corrosion using anti-corrosion paint.
3.1.2 Prestressed Concrete Jacket
Flexural strengthening of concrete beams may be applied using prestressed concrete

jacket. Prestressing shall enhance the serviceability limit states of the existing
3.1 Concrete Jacket 89
A Steel dowels Rough surface
A
Minimum
Main bottom reinforcement (As) 1/3 As
Elevation
Top concrete overlay Top steel bars

Nut
Rough surface Rough surface
Steel dowels Steel dowels
Stirrups Section A-A Stirrups Section A-A

(Case of bottom flexural (Case of top and bottom flexural
reinforcement only is applied) reinforcement are applied)
Fig. 3.1 Concrete jacket for RC beams
concrete member since it will close the existing cracks and reduce the existing deflec-
tion. This “active strengthening” procedure results in that the concrete jacket shall
have its share in carrying the existing loads on the beams at the time of strength-
ening including the self-weight of the concrete member. This is unlike the “passive
strengthening” concept when an RC jacket will share in carrying only the additional
loads imposed on the beam after completing the strengthening works. It is advisable
to use prestressed concrete jacket when the serviceability limit states are crucial or
when the original concrete member is prestressed. It is not advised to use this type
of strengthening when the concrete strength of the original member is low since the
long-term losses of the prestressing force due to creep shall be high. Prestressing may
be applied using post-tensioned concrete jacket or externally unbonded prestressing
steel reinforcement.
Post-tensioned concrete jacket should have a minimum thickness that allows
enough space for the diameter of the duct and the steel cage, which is normally
larger than that of RC jacket. The thickness of the jacket is even increased at the
ends to allow for the jacking and dead ends fixtures of the prestressing steel strands,
which ranges from two to three times the diameter of the duct. Special steel rein-
forcement should be placed at the jacking and dead ends to resist the splitting tensile
forces induced in the concrete at the time of applying the force to the jacket. The
prestressing tendons may consist of circular ducts containing multi-strands or several
flat ducts containing up to five strands each, as shown in Fig. 3.2. The flat ducts are
commonly used for slabs, and it gives the benefit of reducing the jacket thickness as
well as good distribution of the forces at both ends of the beam.
Fig. 3.2 Prestressing steel

ducts
Profile of the prestressing steel strands should be as close as possible to the shape
of the induced bending moment on the strengthened beam in order to minimize the
final flexural stresses on the beam. The shape of the prestressing steel should be well
secured in place before casting the jacket. Concrete properties used for the jacket
should contain small aggregate size and flowable enough to fill the gaps around the
ducts and the non-prestressed steel. Enough space behind the jacking ends should
be left in order to allow for the jacks to apply the prestressing forces on the steel
strands. The prestressing steel stands are only tensioned when the concrete of the
jacket reaches the initial compressive strength, as per the design recommendations.
The prestressing force is transmitted to the original concrete section through shear
in the steel dowels. Extra care should be given to planting the shear dowels since
the success of the jacket depends on prevention of any slip between the jacket and
the original section. If slip occurs at the interface between the new and old concrete
surfaces, the prestressing force shall not be transmitted to the concrete beam. After
completing the stressing procedure and grouting the ducts, RC jackets are cast at the
ends of the beam, which was left to allow room for prestressing the steel strands.
This is only done if the shear stresses in this zone are critical and shear strengthening
is required to accompany the flexural strengthening, as shown in Fig. 3.3.
Prestressing concrete beams may be also carried out using unbonded tendons
externally fixed to the structural member, as shown in Fig. 3.4. In this case, application
requires adding fixtures at both ends of the beam to be used as blocks for tensioning
the tendons. These fixtures may be made of steel or concrete; yet, it has to be well
anchored to the concrete member by steel anchors or bolts.
Profile of the external prestressing steel tendons may be draped at one or two
points as shown in the figure. It is important to pay attention to the minimum radius
of the prestressing steel strands at the deviator, which is 2.0 m for small ducts, as
shown in Fig. 3.5, and to provide friction-reducing material between the deviator
and the tendon. This is to minimize the effect of the fretting fatigue that will increase
due to bending the cables at the deviator and due to vertical deformation of the beam
under the effect of gravity loads. The designer should select the number of deviators
along the beam and the eccentricity of the tendons so that each section along the
beam satisfies the code requirements. The prestressing tendon is a mono- or multi-
strand, well protected from corrosion by coating and plastic sheath, as shown in
Fig. 3.6. Application of external prestressing system to increase the beam capacity
and improve its serviceability is fast; however, maintenance of this system is essential
to avoid corrosion or loss of the prestressing force with time. The exposed steel
3.1 Concrete Jacket 91
Non-prestressed steel Post-tensioned steel A

Jacking end
A
Thickened part of the
jacket
Concrete jacket
Post-tensioned steel
Bearing
Beam strengthening in flexure only
Section A-A
To be cast after tensioning

Non-prestressed steel Post-tensioned steel B Steel stirrups the prestressing steel
Thickened part of the B

Nut
jacket
Rough surface
Concrete jacket
Post-tensioned steel
Bearing
Stirrups
Section B-B
Beam strengthening in flexure and shear
Fig. 3.3 Post-tensioned concrete jacket
Beam with one deviator
Deviator
Unbonded prestressing steel duct

End block
Beam with two deviators
Deviator
Section at mid-span
Fig. 3.4 Unbonded prestressing of concrete beams

Fig. 3.5 Min. radius of

prestressing steel
Fig. 3.6 External

prestressing steel strand
tendons should be also protected against fire, either by enclosure or by fire-resistant

paint.
Unbonded prestressing fiber reinforced polymer bars are also used for strength-
ening concrete beams (El-Hacha et al. 2001), which has the benefit of being non-
corrosive compared to steel tendons. Tensioning the FRP bars should be carried out
using special anchors compatible with the FRP bars to avoid premature failure at the
anchorage zone. Analysis of the beams strengthened with unboned or external steel
or FRP prestressing reinforcement depends on the overall deformation of the beam
to calculate the stresses in the reinforcement, where the stresses in the unbonded
reinforcement are constant all over its length. This is different from the analysis of
concrete beams with bonded system, where strain compatibility is applied across the
concrete section at service and ultimate load stages. Several formulae are given to
calculate the stresses in the external prestressing reinforcement (Ghallab et al. 2004).
3.2 Steel Jacket
Steel plates or steel sections may be used as reinforcement to increase the capacity
of the concrete section. Despite that chemical adhesives were previously used to
bond the steel plates to concrete surface, it is much more effective to bond the steel
sections to the concrete member using either chemical anchors or expansion steel
bolts. Design of those anchors should address the embedment length of the anchor,
spacing between anchors, edge distance and material properties including substrate
concrete (strength, cracking state), steel and adhesives (if used).
Beam capacity strengthened to increase its flexural capacity is at its utmost if the
steel sections are bonded to the soffit of the concrete section; however, this might
not be practical since this zone is usually congested with internal steel bars. It is
then advisable to fix the steel sections to the tension zone of the web, as shown in
Fig. 3.7, to minimize the risk of cutting any of the longitudinal reinforcement, and the
flexural capacity should be calculated accordingly. In case that shear strengthening
3.3 FRP Jacket 93
A B Anchor bolts
A B Anchor bolts
Steel plates Shear
strengthening
Elevation
Nut Nut
Section A-A Section B-B
Fig. 3.7 Beam strengthening with steel plates
is required, attaching steel plate of the full web thickness is required, where it shall
be anchored at the bottom of the web and to the top concrete flange.
Grout should be used between the steel sections and the concrete in order to
prevent humidity or dampness to reach this zone. Welding the steel members should
be avoided when epoxy or any other thermosetting resin is used in the strengthening
scheme, since the heat produced by welding shall soften the resin, and hence, it
will not be effective. The steel should be painted with anti-corrosion if not fire-rated
paint, as per the requirements of the fire strategy of the building. The maximum
strengthening limit given in Eqs. (1.10) and (1.11) may be imposed in cases when
steel jackets are used with no fire protection.
3.3 FRP Jacket
Fiber reinforced polymer reinforcement is produced in the form of strips with thick-
ness of 1.2 and 1.4 mm, or in the form of sheets, similar to that used in column
strengthening and in the form of bars of 6, 8, 10, 12 and 16 mm diameter. FRP
systems are made of fibers and resin, where its function is to bond the fibers together
and to the concrete member. FRP is a laminated structure, where the fibers are
oriented in one or multi-directions (for the sheets only). The commonly used fiber
in structural strengthening is the carbon fiber since it has the highest strength and
modulus, while glass, aramid and basalt fibers are less used in strengthening because
of its low modulus of elasticity, which requires higher reinforcement ratio to satisfy
the serviceability limit state requirements. FRP jackets are aesthetically appealing
since it has limited thickness and it does not change the architectural appearance of
the member. It has also the advantage of being corrosion-free, high strength, where it
can reach five times that of the steel, and lightweight where its density is 20–25% that
of steel. However, it has almost no resistance to fire and low resistance to elevated
temperature unless special resins are used.
Unlike steel reinforcement, there are no universal standard for production of the
FRP reinforcement. Therefore, the manufacturer data of the FRP material should
be reviewed carefully and verified experimentally before application unless received
by a certified producer, who applies quality control protocol on the manufactured
materials. The sheets, strips and bars are commonly used for flexural strengthening,
while only the sheets are used for shear strengthening since it can be wrapped around
the beams. FRP laminates in the form of sheets or strips are externally bonded to the
concrete surface, while FRP bars and strips are mounted in grooves near the concrete
surface made in the concrete cover.
In all cases, FRP application for strengthening in flexure, shear, torsion or axial
tension is bond-critical, unlike the FRP application to increase the axial compression
capacity, where it is contact-critical. The bond-critical application requires good
surface preparation and minimum requirements for the concrete strength, where
a value of the concrete tensile strength should not be lower than 1.4 MPa. The
surface humidity and evenness should be measured before application; in addition,
the concrete surface should be free from cracks, voids or any loose material. Appli-
cation of the FRP system should be done by certified applicators using resins and
fibers produced by the same supplier since compatibility between the materials is
essential. It should be noted that bond is the main design criterion that controls the
system capacity. Two bond failure modes may occur for the FRP reinforcement: plate
end debonding, where the end of the laminates fails by bond, or intermediate crack
debonding, where the bond failure starts at the middle of the beam at a flexural crack
location and extends toward the end of the beam. Both modes should be checked and
included in the design.
Figure 3.8 shows the layout of concrete beam with externally bonded FRP in
flexure and shear. The longitudinal FRP laminates are placed first on the concrete
surface and covered with the transverse laminates. This will enhance the FRP bond
strength since the laminates will act as anchorages in addition to being transverse
reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 3.9. The increase in bond strength is about 30%
compared to that of the laminates without transverse anchorages.
For near-surface-mounted (NSM), FRP systems, the minimum dimension of the
grooves should be 1.5 times the diameter of FRP bar or 3.0 times the thickness of
FRP strip. The minimum clear spacing between the grooves containing the NSM
FRP bars should be twice the depth of the groove to avoid stress concentration.
Furthermore, a clear edge distance of four times the depth of the groove should be
provided to avoid debonding failure. Figure 3.10 shows the minimum dimensions
of the grooves of the NSM FRP system. Hassan and Rizkalla (2003) concluded that
NSM FRP reinforcement has better bond characteristics than the externally bonded
FRP strips and consequently better performance.
3.3 FRP Jacket 95
A
Transverse FRP Longitudinal FRP
A
Longitudinal FRP
Elevation
Longitudinal FRP
Transverse
FRP
Longitudinal
FRP
Section A-A
Fig. 3.8 Beam strengthening with externally bonded FRP
Fig. 3.9 Externally bonded

FRP
Fig. 3.10 NSM FRP Beam

reinforcement
a 1.5d 1.5 b
4.0 a 2.0 a
Strip,
bar,
1.5 d 3.0 t breadth (b) x
diameter (d)
thickness (t)
3.4 Strength Capacity of Jacketed Beams
A unified design methodology is used to calculate the structural capacity of concrete

beams with concrete, steel or FRP jacket. The strength is calculated taking into
consideration the following parameters:
1. Existing strain in the member at the time of strengthening application.
2. Failure mode of the strengthened members.
3. Ductility of the strengthened members.
4. Maximum ratio between the strengthened and the unstrengthened sections.
5. Shear strength of the new section.
6. Bond stresses and development length of the jacket reinforcement.
7. Interfacial shear between the jacket and the original concrete section.
3.4.1 Flexural Strength of Strengthened Beams
Figure 3.11 shows the strain and force distribution of a rectangular concrete section
with breadth “b”, total thickness “h” and depth of steel reinforcement “d”, strength-
ened with either concrete, steel or externally bonded or near-surface-mounted FRP.
The section is subjected to flexural moment, which produces tension at the bottom
soffit with linear strain distribution along the beam height. If the applied flexural
moment at the time of strengthening is “M s ”, the maximum compressive strain at the
top soffit is “εci ” and the tensile strain at the level of the newly added reinforcement
is “εbi ”. At flexural strength of the beam, “M u ”, the total tensile strain at the bottom
soffit is “εct ”, while the compressive strain at the top soffit is “εcu ” which is equal
to 0.003. Curvature of the concrete section, “ϕ”, is calculated at service loads using
Eq. (3.1).
3.4 Strength Capacity of Jacketed Beams 97
Fig. 3.11 Analysis of concrete section strengthened with concrete, steel or FRP jacket
εci εbi Ms
ϕi = = = (3.1)
kd h − kd E ci Icr
where “kd” is the neutral axis depth at service loads, “M s ” is the flexural moment at
time of strengthening, “E ci ” is the initial concrete modulus, and “I cr ” is the cracked
moment of inertia.
The tensile strain of the added reinforcement for strengthening purpose, “εR ”
where “R” may refer to steel bars, steel plate or FRP, is calculated using Eq. (3.2).
( )
dR − c
εR = εcu − εbi (3.2)
c
where “d R ” is the depth of the newly added reinforcement and “c” is the neutral axis
depth at ultimate moment, which can be calculated using iterative procedure of strain
compatibility as per Eq. (3.2) and force equilibrium as per Eqs. (3.3) and (3.4). An
initial value for “c” is first assumed, and the strains and stresses are calculated. A
revised value for the depth of neutral axis is then calculated until the calculated and
assumed values for “c” agree.
Fc = Fs + FR (3.3)
'
α1 f c β1 cb = As f s + AR f R (3.4)
where “α 1 ” is equal 0.85, “β 1 ” is as per Fig. 3.12, “As ” is the steel area in the original
section, “AR ” is the area of the newly added reinforcement, “f y ” is the yield stress
of the longitudinal steel in the original section, and “f R ” is the stress in the newly
added reinforcement, which is calculated as per Fig. 3.13 and Eqs. (3.5)–(3.10).
For steel bars and sections, f R = E s εR ≤ f y (3.5)
For CFRP laminates and bars, f R = E f εR ≤ f fd (3.6)
where “E s and E f ” are the steel and FRP elastic moduli, respectively. In order to
consider both the environmental effect and bond between CFRP and concrete, the
following equations are followed:
Fig. 3.12 Calculation of β 1
Fig. 3.13 Calculation of

“f R ”
For externally bonded CFRP,

( / )
f c'
f fd = ψf Ce f fu∗ ≤ ψf κb 0.41 E f ≤ ψf (εR )E f (3.7)
n E f tf
For near-surface-mounted CFRP,
f fd = ψf Ce f fu∗ ≤ ψf (0.7εfu )E f (3.8)
where
f fu∗ = f fu − 3σ (3.9)
f fu∗
εfu = (3.10)
Ef
And “ f fu∗ ” is the FRP ultimate tensile strength, “ f fu ” is the mean value of the FRP
tensile strength, “σ ” is the standard deviation of the strengths, “C e ” is the environ-
mental reduction factor equal to 0.95 for interior exposure and 0.85 for exterior expo-
sure, “ψ f ” is the FRP strength reduction factor equal 0.85, “κ b ” is a factor depending
on the bond of the longitudinal FRP, equals 1.0 in case there is no anchorage and 1.3
if the FRP is anchored by transverse FRP, “n” is the number of externally bonded
CFRP plies used on top of each other, and “t f ” is the thickness of single CFRP ply.
The above procedure is valid for the mode of failure when concrete crushing
governs the design, i.e. (εcu = 0.003). If FRP rupture, cover delamination or FRP
debonding occurs, the above procedure still gives reasonably accurate results (ACI
440.2R-17). After establishment of the forces and strain gradient in the cross-section,
the resisting flexural capacity is calculated using Eq. (3.11).
[ ( a) ( a )]
Mr = φ A s f s d − + AR f R dR − (3.11)
2 2
where “φ” is calculated according to Fig. 1.21 to account for the ductility of the
flexural member.
Example 3.1 A simple beam has a rectangular cross-section with dimensions of

300 mm width (b), 600 mm total height (h), and clear span of 7.0 m. The beam is
longitudinally reinforced with (4) steel bars of 20 mm diameter. Due to architectural
changes, the beam shall be carrying additional loads so that the induced bending
moments are as follows:
Moments due to dead loads (MDL), superimposed dead loads (MSID) and live
load (MLL) = 100, 60 and 100 kNm, respectively.
If the concrete cylinder strength is 30 MPa and the yield stress of the steel is
420 MPa, check if the beam is safe and design the strengthening concrete jacket.
Answer
√ ' √
As = 1257 mm2 , E ci = 4700 f c = 4700 (30) = 25,742 MPa.
n (modular ratio) = E s /E ci = 200,000/25,742 = 7.769.
Using Fig. 3.12, β 1 = 0.8357.
To calculate the flexural capacity of the original concrete section (M r ).
Compression in the concrete (0.85f c ' ab) = Tension in the steel (As f y ), therefore:
a = 68.99 mm, c (neutral axis [ depth
( at ultimate)
)] =[ a/β 1 = 82.55
( mm. )]
Resisting moment, Mr = φ As f y d − a2 = 0.9 1257 × 420 550 − 68.99 2
=
244.9 kNm.
Factored moment, M f = 1.2 MDL + 1.2 MSID + 1.6 MLL = 352 kNm > M r =
244.9 (unsafe—therefore, strengthening required).
Calculation of the concrete jacket:
Reference is made to Fig. 3.11, and in order to calculate the neutral axis depth at
service load, “kd”, the statical moment of area about the neutral axis is as follows:
b×(kd)2
2
= n As (d − kd), therefore kd = 159.4 mm.
The cracked moment of inertia (I cr ) = 1,894,527,198 mm4 .
Using Eq. (3.1) to calculate the strain at the bottom soffit of the original concrete
section at time of strengthening where the superimposed dead load and live load
were not applied on the concrete beam,
Ms (h − kd) 100 × 106 × (600 − 159.4)

εbi = = = 0.000903
E ci Icr 25,742 × 1,894,527,198
Assume the new cross-section is 400 × 700 mm, as shown in Fig. 3.14 with 4 bars
16 mm diameter at the tension side with concrete compressive strength = 30 MPa
and steel yield stress of 420 MPa.
As = 804 mm2 .
Compression in the concrete (0.85 × 30 × a × 400) = Tension in the steel in the
original section (1257 × 420) + Tension in the newly added steel (804 × 420).
Therefore: a = 84.86 mm, c(= 101.54 )mm.
Using Eq. (3.2), εR = 0.003 650−101.54
101.54
− 0.000903 = 0.0153 > εy = 0.0021.
Therefore, f R = 420 MPa, and applying Eq. (3.11),
Fig. 3.14 Cross-section
600
100 4-16 mm
400 Steel bars
[ ( ) ( )]
84.86 84.86
Mr = 0.9 1257 × 420 550 − + 804 × 420 650 − = 425.8 kNm
2 2
M r = 425.8 > M f = 352 kNm (safe).
Example 3.2 For the beam given in Example 3.1, it is required to increase the flexural
strength due to application of the following loads using CFRP strips:
Moments due to dead load (MDL), superimposed dead load (MSID) and live load
(MLL) = 100, 40 and 80 kNm, respectively.
The properties of the CFRP strips are as follows: dimensions: 100 × 1.0 mm,
CFRP ultimate tensile strength, “ f fu∗ ” = 2500 MPa and elastic modulus = 160 GPa.
Answer
Factored moment, M f = 1.2 MDL + 1.2 MSID + 1.6 MLL = 296 kNm > M r =
244.9 (unsafe—therefore, strengthening required).
Calculation of the longitudinal CFRP strips required for flexural strengthening:
Using Eq. (3.7),
⎛ ⎞
((0.85)(0.95)(2500)
/ )
⎜ (30) ⎟
f fd = Min. of ⎝ (0.85)(1.3) 0.41 (1)(160,000)(1.0) (160,000) ⎠
(0.85)(εR )(160,000)
⎛ ⎞
2018
=⎝ 992 ⎠ MPa
to be checked
Using f fd = 992 MPa and κ b = 1.3 (transverse anchorage shall be used for the
longitudinal CFRP, as shown in Fig. 3.15), the preliminary estimation of the area of
CFRP strips is as follows:
Mf ≈ φ(Fs + FR )(0.8 to 0.85d)
296 × 106 ≈ 0.9(1257 × 420 + Af × 992)(0.8 to 0.85) × 550
Hence, Af = 177–221 mm2 .
Transverse FRP
Longitudinal CFRP
(Two 100 x 1.0 mm strips)
Elevation
Fig. 3.15 Beam with CFRP strengthening

Try two strips 100 × 1.0 mm with area of 200 mm2 .

Applying force equilibrium, C = F s + F R ,
0.85 (30) a × 300 = 1257 × 420 + 200 × 992. Therefore, a = 81.8 mm and c =
a/β 1 = 98.1 mm.
Applying Eq. (3.1),
( ) ( )
600 − c 600 − 98.1
εR = 0.003 − εbi = 0.003 − 0.000903 = 0.0144
c 98.1
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2018 2018
Therefore f fd = Min. of ⎝ 992 ⎠ = ⎝ 992 ⎠MPa =
0.85 × 0.0144 × 160,000 1964
992 MPa. [ ( ) ( )]
Applying Eq. (3.11), Mr = 0.9 1257 × 420 550 − 81.8
2
+ 200 × 992 600 − 81.8
2
M r = 341.7 kNm > M f = 296.0 kNm (safe).
3.5 Calculation of Shear Connectors
Full composite behavior of concrete beams or slabs strengthened with top concrete
overlay shall not be guaranteed unless no slip occurs of the shear dowels connecting
the original section with the overlay. The interfacial shear transfer between the
top slab and the supporting beams (horizontal shear), shall affect the load carrying
capacity and behavior of the beam if not considered in the design. Interfacial shear
capacity is directly influenced by the distribution and the percentage of shear connec-
tors. Research and design guidelines suggest two different approaches to calculate
the required shear reinforcement at the interface, namely based on the shear force
along the beam length or the actual longitudinal force in the newly cast element
resulting from bending moment in the member.
In the first method, distribution of the shear dowels is calculated based on the
shear force along the beam, where the dowels are intensified at the maximum shear
zone and reduced at the mid-span, as shown in Fig. 3.16. The dowels are calculated
using shear friction theory and based on the shear flow at the interface and the shear
strength of the dowels, using Eqs. (3.12)–(3.16).
φVnh ≥ Vu (3.12)
In case that Vu < φ (3.5bv d):

1. When concrete is cast against hardened concrete intentionally roughened to an
amplitude of approximately 6 mm:
( )
Av f y
Vnh = 1.8 + 0.6 bv d ≤ 3.5bv d (3.13)
bv s
3.5 Calculation of Shear Connectors 103
Concrete overlay
Shear force diagram
Slip Slip
Shear dowels
Most stressed
dowels
½ span ½ span
Fig. 3.16 Shear dowels calculated based on the shear force
2. When concrete is cast against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened:
Vnh = 0.55bv d (3.14)

( √ )
0.062 f c' bwfys
where Av(min.) ≥ The greater of (3.15)
0.35 bwfys
In case that Vu > φ (3.5bv d):
Vu
Av = (3.16)
φ fyμ
where V nh is the horizontal shear strength, φ is taken as per Table 1.5, bv is the
width of the contact surface, Av is the steel area resisting shear friction crossing the
assumed shear plane, f y is the yield stress of the steel shear reinforcement, and μ
is the coefficient of friction equals: 1.0 for concrete cast against hardened concrete
that is clean, free of laitance and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of
approximately 6.0 mm; 0.6 for concrete cast against hardened concrete that is clean,
free of laitance and not intentionally roughened; and 0.7 for concrete placed against
as-rolled structural steel that is clean, free of paint and with shear transferred across
the contact surface by headed studs or by welded deformed bars or wires.
Alternatively, shear dowels may be calculated based on the change in flexural

compressive or tensile force in the concrete member. Accordingly, the number of
shear dowels is calculated based on the actual compression or tension force in the
newly cast element and the shear capacity of the steel dowels placed to resist this
force, as shown in Eq. (3.17). The steel dowels should be able to transfer that force as
longitudinal shear to the supporting member, as shown in Fig. 3.17. In any case, the
factored longitudinal shear force shall not exceed the longitudinal shear resistance.
Spacing of the shear dowels along the contact surface should provide horizontal shear
resistance distributed approximately the same as the distribution of shear stress since
redistribution of the horizontal shear resistance is limited.
C or T
Av = (3.17)
φ fyμ
where C or T is the actual compression or tension force in the newly added element.
It was proved by testing (Awry et al. 2013) that beams with non-uniform distribu-
tion of shear dowels shall result in the same capacity compared to that with uniform
dowel distribution; yet, ductility of the beam with intensified distribution of dowels
at the shear zone is higher, as shown in Fig. 3.18. The figure shows the capacity
of two composite beam specimens with 6 mm diameter shear dowels connecting
½ span
Span
Bending moment diagram
Fig. 3.17 Shear dowels calculated based on the change in flexural compressive or tensile force
3.5 Calculation of Shear Connectors 105
250
200 Steel dowels diameter

6 mm every 200 mm
Load (kN)
150 Steel dowels

diameter 6 mm
every 130/285 mm
100
50
0
0 2.0 4.0 6.0
Horizontal shear deformation (mm)
Fig. 3.18 Behavior of composite beams with variable distribution of shear dowels
the rectangular cross-section to the concrete slab on top. The two specimens have
the same number of dowels; yet, the first one has uniform dowel distribution every
200 mm and the second one has varying distribution of 130 mm spacing at the shear
zone and 285 mm at the mid-span. It is clear that the ductility of the beam with
varying spacing at the shear zone is higher. Moreover, it should be noted that in
strength computations of composite members, no distinction shall be made between
members strengthened with passive or active strengthening; i.e., calculation of the
required steel area of shear dowels shall not differ in case that the beam was carrying
load at the time of strengthening.
Example 3.3 For the beam in Example 3.1, design the shear dowels connecting the
original section to the new concrete jacket, knowing that the shear capacity of the
10 mm steel dowel in shear is 28 kN.
Answer
Reference is made to Fig. 3.14, and using the lower two anchor bolts to transfer the
tension in the longitudinal steel reinforcement in the jacket, the required area of steel
bolts in half the beam length is calculated according to the following:
As f y 4 × 201 × 420
Number of steel shear dowels = = = 16.08
φVa 0.75 × 28,000
Use (9 rows × 2 = 18 steel dowels of 10 mm diameter) in half the beam length,

therefore spacing between each row of dowels is 3500/9 = 380 mm, as shown in
Fig. 3.19.
Fig. 3.19 Steel dowel distribution
3.6 Shear Strengthening of Beams
The shear capacity of concrete section strengthened with concrete, steel or FRP
jacket shall be calculated so that the nominal shear strength multiplied by the strength
reduction factor, as per Table 1.5, should be higher than the applied factored shear
force, as per Eq. (3.18). The shear capacity of the strengthened section is calculated
according to Eq. (3.19).
φVn ≥ Vu (3.18)
φVn = φ(Vc + Vs + VR ) (3.19)
where V c , V s and V R , are the concrete, steel and strengthening reinforcement

capacities, respectively, calculated as per the following equations.
( )
1√ Nu √
Vc = 0.66λs (ρw ) 3 f c' + bw d ≤ 0.42 f c' bw d (3.20)
6Ag
/ ( √ ) ( )
where λs = 1+0.004d2
≤ 1.0 and = 1.0 if Asv ≥ 0.062 f c' bfytw or 0.35 bfwyt , ρ w is
the ratio of the longitudinal reinforcement of the beam (As /bw d), and N u is the axial
force on the section, taken (+) for compression and (−) for tension.
Av f yt d
Vs = (3.21)
s
AvR f yt d
For steel stirrups shear strengthening, VR = (3.22)
s
Afv f fe df
For FRP shear strengthening, VR = ψf (3.23)
sf
where ψ f = 0.85 for two-sided and U-wrapped FRP laminates and 0.95 for fully
wrapped FRP laminates, Afv = 2nt f wf , f fe = E f (0.004), and d f , sf and wf are defined
in Fig. 3.20.
The ultimate shear force (V u ), should not exceed the value given in Eq. (3.24).
3.6 Shear Strengthening of Beams 107
Anchorage
df
Transverse
FRP
wf
sf
Section Elevation
Fig. 3.20 Variables used in FRP shear strengthening
( √ )
Vu ≤ φ Vc + 0.66 f c' bw d (3.24)
Example 3.4 The beam given in Example 3.1 is subjected to shear forces due to
dead, superimposed dead and live loads (VDL, VSID and VLL), of 90, 55 and
90 kN, respectively. It is required to calculate the following:
1. Shear capacity of the original section knowing that the existing steel stirrups in
the original section are two branched 8 mm diameter bars every 250 mm with
240 MPa yield stress.
2. Steel stirrups of the jacket using 10 mm diameter bars of 420 MPa yield stress.
Answer
√ √
For the original section: Av
s
= 2×50.3
250
= 0.402 < 0.062 f c' bfytw = 0.062 30 300
240
=
0.4245
√
2 1257
λs = = 0.79, ρw = = 0.0076
1 + 0.004 × 550 300 × 550
√
30 × 300 × 550 × 10−3 = 92.9 kN
1
Vc = 0.66 × 0.79(0.0076) 3
√
check Vc < 0.42 30 300 × 550 × 10−3 = 379.6 kN
2 × 50.3 × 240 × 550

Vs = = 53.1 kN
250 × 1000
Vu = 1.2 VDL + 1.2 VSID + 1.6 VLL = 318 kN
Shear strength = φ(Vc + Vs ) = 0.75 (92.9 + 53.1) = 109.5 kN.

Therefore, V u > φ (Vc + Vs ). Strengthening is needed.
For the jacket given in Example 3.1, the new dimensions of the beam are 400
width and 700 depth with four longitudinal bars of 16 mm diameter.
1257 + 804
λs = 1.0, ρw = = 0.0079
400 × 650
√
30 × 400 × 650 × 10−3 = 187.7 kN
1
Vc = 0.66 × 1.0(0.0079) 3
Vu 318
VR (Jacket) = − Vc − Vs = − 187.7 − 53.1 = 183.2 kN
φ 0.75
VR (stirrups of the jacket) = 183,200 = 2×78.5×420×650

s
, therefore spacing (s) =
233 mm.
It is proposed to use two branches steel stirrups of 10 mm diameter spaced every
220 mm, therfore, V R = 194.9 kN.
V u (318) < φ (V c + V s + V R ) = 0.75 (187.7 + 53.1 + 194.9) = 326.8 kN (safe).
Check for the maximum shear force:
( √ )
Vu (318 kN) ≤ φ Vc + 0.66 f c' bw d = (845 kN) (OK).
3.7 Bond and Development Length
Bond failure of tensile reinforcement is brittle and catastrophic and should be avoided
by providing adequate development length. For simply supported beams, at least one
third of the total required steel reinforcement should be extended into the support,
while only one fourth of the longitudinal steel reinforcement is adequate. This is
unless additional reinforcement is required to be extended in the support as tension
or compression reinforcement resisting the induced flexural moments. Development
of the FRP reinforcement is required with a minimum length of “ldf ”, calculated as
per Eq. (3.25). In addition, FRP reinforcement should be extended after the point of
zero moment in the flexural member with a minimum length of 150 mm.
/
n E f tf
ldf = √ (3.25)
f c'
3.8 Serviceability of Strengthened Beams
Serviceability limit states of the strengthened members should be satisfied by limiting

the deflection and crack width of concrete members to the allowable values. In
3.8 Serviceability of Strengthened Beams 109
addition to the aesthetics of the structure, deflection is controlled to protect the

non-structural elements from damage and prevent ponding of the roof floors. Large
crack width in concrete elements will increase the potential of steel corrosion, and
hence, the concrete durability shall be risked. Serviceability limit states should be
also checked by limiting the floor vibration to satisfy the comfort level of the users,
while fatigue of the reinforcing steel should be endured to ensure the design lifetime
of the structure.
The steel and concrete stresses should be also limited under the effect of service
loads in order to avoid inelastic deformation in the member. Equations (3.26) and
(3.27) show the maximum allowable service stresses in the concrete and internal steel
of the original section under the effect of full service loads. For passive strengthening
and in order to calculate the service stresses, superposition shall be made between
the calculated stresses of the original section under the effect of the existing loads at
the time of strengthening and the stresses of the strengthened section under the effect
of additional loads. In case of jacking the beam to release it from the acting loads or
in case of prestressing the beam, the stresses of the new section shall be calculated
using the full loads including self-weight of the beam.
f c,s ≤ 0.6 f c ' (3.26)
f s,s ≤ 0.8 f y (3.27)
Example 3.5 For the same beam in Example 3.1, it is required to calculate the stress
in the steel of the original section and the stress in the newly added steel.
Answer
Following the sequence of loading, the stress in the steel of the original section shall
be calculated on two steps; in the first step, the stress shall be calculated using the
properties of the original section and the bending moment due to dead load only. In
the second step, the steel stress shall be calculated using the strengthened section
properties and the bending moment due to additional loads, which shall be induced
on the beam after strengthening. The total steel stress shall be the summation of the
steel stress resulting from the two steps, as shown in Fig. 3.21.
Steel strain due to dead load only,
Fig. 3.21 Strain profile of

strengthened beam
MDL (d − kd) 100 × 106 × (550 − 159.4)

εs(DL) = = = 0.0008
E ci Icr 25,742 × 1,894,527,198
Steel strain due to superimposed dead and live loads (properties of the strengthened
section are: kd = 180.8 mm and I cr = 3,494,342,027 mm4 ),
(MSID + MLL )(d − kd) 160 × 106 × (550 − 180.8)

εs(SID+LL) = = = 0.00066
E ci Icr 25,742 × 3,494,342,027
εs(Total) = εs(DL) + εs(SID+LL) = 0.0008 + 0.00066 = 0.00146
f s = 0.00146 × 200,000 = 292 MPa.
Steel stress of the jacket is calculated using the moments due to superimposed
dead and live loads only,
(100 + 60) × 106 × (650 − 180.8)

εR = = 0.0008346
25,742 × 3,494,342,027
f R = 0.0008346 × 200,000 = 167 MPa.
Example 3.6 For the same beam in Example 3.5, it is required to calculate the stress
in the steel of the original section and the stress in the newly added steel in case that
the beam was jacked to release the stresses in the beam before application of the
strengthening jacket.
Answer
The new section of dimensions 400 × 700 and two levels of reinforcements shall be
resisting the full loads including the dead, superimposed dead load and live loads
(MDL + MSID + MLL )(d − kd)

εs(DL+SID+LL) =
E ci Icr
260 × 10 × (550 − 180.8)
6
= = 0.00107
25,742 × 3,494,342,027
f s = 0.00107 × 2,000,000 = 213 MPa
260 × 106 × (650 − 180.8)

εR(DL+SID+LL) = = 0.00136
25,742 × 3,494,342,027
f s = 0.00136 × 2,000,000 = 271 MPa.
Table 3.1 shows the stress in the steel reinforcement of the original section and
the strengthening jacket in case of passive and active strengthening. It is clear that
3.9 Corbel Strengthening 111
Table 3.1 Steel stress in the

Type of Steel stress of Steel stress of
strengthened beam
strengthening original section jacket (MPa)
(MPa)
Passive 292 167
(Example 3.5)
Active 213 271
(Example 3.6)
the steel stress of the original section is higher in case of using passive strengthening
(292 vs. 213 MPa); yet, it did not exceed the service limit of 80% of the steel yield
stress, as per Eq. (3.27). In case that the steel stress exceeds the service limit, jacking
the beam to release the loads from the beam before strengthening is recommended
to reduce the stress in the steel of the original section under full service loads.
Meantime, the steel stress of the jacket is higher in case of using “active strengthen-
ing” since it participates in resisting more loads compared to “passive strengthening”.
This stress may be reduced by increasing the area of the used steel reinforcement in
the jacket.
3.9 Corbel Strengthening
Concrete corbels are damaged either due to lack of steel reinforcement, which leads
to tensile cracks in the corbel or due to bad detailing, where the bearing pads are
placed close to the concrete edge. In the first case, where tensile cracks exist in the
concrete corbel, conventional strengthening either by concrete jacket, steel plates
or FRP laminates is applicable. The added tensile reinforcement shall be oriented
in the same direction of main reinforcement and distributed along the height of
the corbel. The success key of strengthening is to provide enough development
length since the length of the corbel is usually less than the development length
of tensile reinforcement. Mechanical anchorage may be used at the reinforcement
end to develop the tension force and transmit it to the concrete. Figure 3.22a shows
typical strengthening of concrete corbel using FRP laminates, where FRP anchorage
is used at the end of the laminates. The anchorage is made of unidirectional carbon
fibers placed in a predrilled hole in the concrete filled with epoxy resin. The exposed
part of the carbon fibers is opened in a fan shape and bonded to the externally bonded
laminates.
Concrete corbels may be also damaged if the bearings are placed close to the
concrete edge while there is no special reinforcement provided to prevent the concrete
cover from spalling as a result of the splitting force induced from high stresses beneath
the bearing. Lifting the concrete beam and replacing the bearing may not be feasible
since it requires to stop the use of the structure until completion of the repair works.
A simple technique by fastening a steel pin to the concrete beam and the concrete
corbel, as shown in Fig. 3.22b, may be adopted to transmit the vertical reaction to the
CFRP
laminates
CFRP
anchor Concrete
Embedment
depth
Fan
Steel
length
pin
CFRP anchor
a) Corbel strengthening with CFRP b) Corbel strengthening with steel pin
Fig. 3.22 Strengthening of RC corbels
undamaged concrete part of the corbel. The pin should be allowed to rotate freely to
avoid any restraint and reinstate the initial condition at the time of construction.
In case that longitudinal beams exist at the edges of the corbel and the column,
as shown in Fig. 3.23, external prestressing bar may be used to induce compression
force at the tension zone in the corbel. Losses in the short prestressing bar are high
and increase by time, which can be overcome by checking the nut and tightening it
regularly with torque wrench. Protection of the steel bar against corrosion is a must
since the rate of corrosion increases with the increase of the axial tension in the bar.
This may be addressed by providing anti-corrosion paint, grease and plastic tube on
the bar. The prestressing bars may be also galvanized or made of stainless steel.
Injected
crack
Prestressing Prestressing steel bar

bar
Fig. 3.23 Strengthening corbels with external prestressing

3.10 Case Study 3.1 113
Fig. 3.24 Detailing of

newly cast concrete corbels
It should be highlighted that in new construction, steel angle may be added at

the corner of the corbel across its full width to protect the concrete cover of being
chipped. In that case, steel bars should be welded to the steel angle and developed
in the concrete in order to prevent the potential crack that may result in failure at the
corbel edge, as shown in Fig. 3.24.
3.10 Case Study 3.1
This case study addresses a concrete bridge, which consists of 13 spans (29 m exterior
spans and 35 m interior spans) supported on 12 frame piers. Each pier consists of
arch girder with minimum cross-section of 1.20 × 1.30 m supported on columns
with the same dimensions and two overhanging cantilevers. The frame supports box
girder bridge deck resting on five elastomeric bearings. Cracking of the bridge piers
is shown in Fig. 3.25, where a large number of cracks were observed in the top of the
cantilevers and covering the zones of negative bending moments in the frame pier.
The cracks were extended through the entire cross-section as shown in the figure, in
addition to excessive deflection at the end of the cantilever.
Analysis of the bridge showed that the concrete frame was under-designed in
flexure and shear and the amount of steel reinforcement in the frame does not satisfy
the code requirements. Application of concrete jacket or external steel or FRP rein-
forcement at the top of the frame for flexure strengthening was not feasible because of
the limited space between the frame and the bridge deck. Accordingly, the retrofitting
scheme of the bridge was based on the concept of reducing the flexural moment on the
cantilever to avoid flexural strengthening of the cantilever. The construction scheme
included the following:
1. Existing bridge bearings were replaced with new ones, while adding two more
bearings on top of the pier so that the total number of bearings supported by
Fig. 3.25 Bridge pier supporting five elastomeric bearings
each pier became seven, as shown in Fig. 3.26. The two additional bearings were
placed at the vicinity of the columns to relief some of the vertical reactions on the
bearings mounted at the edges of the frame; consequently, the negative bending
moment of the cantilever was reduced. The existing flexural reinforcement in the
cantilever was adequate after the considerable reduction in the bending moment
of the cantilever frame. Flat hydraulic jacks were used to lift the deck slab while
resting on top of the concrete frame. The jacks were synchronized so that equal
stroke of the jacks and even lifting of the deck slab is granted.
2. All the observed cracks in the piers were injected with low-viscous epoxy to
retain the structural integrity of the member.
3. Externally bonded carbon FRP (CFRP), laminates were used to strengthen the
cantilevers, where a number of U-Wraps were attached to the sides of the frame
to enhance the shear strength of the cantilevers. It is worth noting that the shear
strength of the cantilevers was still below the shear demand even after the reduc-
tion of the applied shear force on the cantilevers. The laminates were heat treated
during curing in order to increase the glass transition temperature of the epoxy
since the laminates were exposed to the environment. CFRP wraps were covered
with cementitious material and painted to protect it from vandalism.
Additional Additional
Bearing Bearing
CFRP shear
strengthening
Fig. 3.26 Bridge pier after strengthening

Chapter 4
Slab Strengthening
Concrete slabs suffering from lack of structural capacity or material deterioration

may be rehabilitated by any of the means used for beams strengthening, including
concrete overlay, adding steel sections or FRP reinforcement. Combination of two
or more of those strengthening techniques may be also used, where one technique
is used at the top and another technique is used to strengthen the slab bottom soffit,
depending on architectural requirements, functionality and ease of construction.
Slab strengthening may also include reduction of the straining actions by adding
new structural members, whether concrete or steel beams or columns. Slab strength-
ening may be done for the enhancement of the flexural moment or punching
shear resistance. Slabs may also be strengthened to enhance its serviceability limit
states by increasing its stiffness to control the crack width, reduce its deflection or
improve its vibrational behavior. Moreover, strengthening may be introduced for the
improvement of the slab fire resistance.
4.1 Concrete Overlay for Slab Strengthening
Concrete overlays of slabs are constructed at either the top, bottom or both surfaces
of the slab depending on the sections required to be strengthened. Despite that the
concrete overlay at the top of the slab is easier to construct, the overlay at the bottom
of the slab could be also done while concrete is cast using form-and-pump technique
to ensure that no honeycomb or voids exist in the overlay. It might be more economic
to use concrete overlay at the top, while using either CFRP reinforcement or steel
plates to strengthen the positive moment section of the slab.
After propping the slab to carry its weight and the weight of the overlay, steel
dowels are planted to transfer the interfacial shear forces between the old and new
concrete. The total area of steel shear dowels planted in one quarter of the slab panel
(1/2 l x × 1/2 ly ), as per Fig. 4.1, can be calculated based on the bending moments in
the x and y directions integrated within half the slab length/width (Mx , M y ) as per
116 4 Slab Strengthening
Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2). Both the positive and negative moments should be integrated
and used for calculation of the shear dowels.
1
∫2 l y
Mx = Mx dl (4.1)
0
1
∫2 lx
My = M y dl (4.2)
0
The induced forces on the shear dowels in the x and y directions (Fx and Fy ), can
be calculated using Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4) for both the positive and negative bending
moments independently. The total force on the shear dowels in one quarter of the slab
panel (Fs ) is calculated using Eq. (4.5) after adding the forces in the both directions
(x and y) resulting from the positive and the negative moments. Similar to Eq. (3.17),
the area of steel shear dowels can be calculated using Eq. (4.6).
Average bending ( dl)

moment (Mx) in ½ ly
( dl)
Distribution of
( dl)
Shear dowels
My(+ve) ½ ly
½ lx
( dl)
3D View
Average bending moment (My) in ½ lx
Top steel bars Concrete overlay

Steel dowels
Section
Fig. 4.1 Slab strengthening by concrete overlay

4.3 Adding Structural Member 117
Mx
Fx = (4.3)
d − a2
My
Fy = (4.4)
d − a2
/
2 2
Fs = Fx + Fy (4.5)
Fs
Av = (4.6)
φ fyμ
4.2 External Reinforcement for Slab Strengthening
Concrete slabs may be strengthened with external steel plates, externally bonded
FRP laminates or near-surface-mounted FRP reinforcement. Analysis and design of
slabs strengthened with external reinforcement are similar to that of beams given in
Chap. 3. The external reinforcement may be applied in one direction or two directions
depending on the aspect ratio of the slab and the required strengthening of the slab,
as shown in Fig. 4.2. Use of different strengthening schemes in the same slab may
be applied so that steel plates are attached to the top of the slab and FRP strips are
attached at the slab bottom soffit. This may be preferably applied since it is easier
to install the steel strips and dowel insertion from the slab top compared to working
overhead for the bottom surface. Calculation of the required area of steel dowels is
carried out as per that given for slabs strengthened with concrete overlay.
In case that the external steel plates are applied in two directions, care should be
given to fill the gap behind the steel plates with filling material such as grout or epoxy
grout to protect the steel plates from corrosion, as shown in Fig. 4.2.
4.3 Adding Structural Member
Slabs can be also strengthened by adding structural members made of steel or

concrete, while the new member may be column or beam. The structural system
of the slab is changed by adding columns or beams aiming at dividing the slabs to
smaller areas and increasing its stiffness. The straining actions and deformations of
the slabs shall be reduced after adding the new member. Planting concrete beams to
support existing slabs requires drilling in the slabs for the transverse steel stirrups and
in the supporting elements for the longitudinal reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 4.3.
After assembling the steel cage, concrete with low shrinkage admixtures is cast
to reduce the interfacial shear stresses between the old and new concrete induced
Beam Column
Column
Plan of the bottom slab surface (one way slab)

A
Concrete slab
Section A-A Grout
(Two-way slab) Steel plate Plan of the bottom slab surface (Two-way slab)
Fig. 4.2 Slab strengthening with steel plates
Rough
concrete
surface
Planted
transverse
steel bars
Planted
longitudinal
steel bars
Fig. 4.3 Slab strengthening by adding concrete beam
by concrete shrinkage. Before concrete casting, the slab should be either propped
so that the props support the concrete weight and the weights above or jacked up
to release the load from the slab, as shown in Fig. 4.4. The figure shows detailing
of the required steel reinforcement for the new beam. Releasing the loads from the
4.3 Adding Structural Member 119
Rough
Steel dowels A Concrete overlay surface Top steel
bars
Hydraulic
Jacks
A
Steel
beams
Props
Concrete overlay Top steel bars
Rough surface
Steel cage
Stirrups
Section A-A
Fig. 4.4 Jacking the strengthened slab
slab at the time of casting the new supporting beam will reduce the overall stresses
in the slab since the new beam will share in carrying the total weights with the slabs
including the weight of the slab and the weights above.
4.3.1 Lifting Concrete Slabs Before Strengthening
Excessive deflection of concrete slabs may occur due to insufficient flexural steel
reinforcement or due to construction errors such as early removal of formwork,
movement of formwork during concrete casting or use of defective materials. In those
cases, lifting the slab to reduce the in-situ deflection could be desirable to improve
the aesthetics of the structure. Proper measures should be taken during lifting the
slab in order to avoid inducing reversed straining actions on the slab, which the slab
is not designed for.
Figure 4.5a shows typical load–deflection behavior of concrete slab subjected to
repeated loading. It is clear that the inelastic deflection of the slab after removal of
the applied load (Δr ) is considerable compared to that of the elastic deflection of
the slab (Δe ). The elastic deflection can be recovered by lifting the slab, while the
inelastic deflection cannot be recovered after load removal.
horizontal
1) camber Δe (elastic) position
Load
2) elastic 3) inelastic
deflection Δe (elastic) deflection
4) Position
after lifting
Δr Δe Deflection
a) Deflection under repeated load b) Deflection of simply supported concrete slab
Fig. 4.5 Load–deflection of concrete slabs
The simply supported slab shown in Fig. 4.5b is cambered at position number (1).
The applied loads on the slab result in instantaneous elastic deflection to position
number (2) and further by time to position number (3) after occurrence of the inelastic
deflection. The slab can only be lifted up to position number (4) by the amount of the
elastic deflection leaving the slab deflected downward with irrecoverable deflection.
The inelastic slab deflection due to concrete creep may reach double the elastic
deflection depending on the amount of tension and compression reinforcement,
concrete strength and other environmental conditions. Lifting the slab to recover more
than the elastic deflection (Δe ), shall result in reversed straining action with values
proportional to the values of the recovered deflection exceeding the elastic value.
These straining actions may result in cracking of the slab or, eventually, local failure
at one or more than one section. Accordingly, it should be ensured that jacking the
slab is monitored so that it does not exceed the calculated elastic deflection resulting
from the slab self-weight and weights carried by the slab at the time of jacking (if
any).
Synchronized jacking, in case of using more than one jack, should be used to lift
the slab so that the stroke of each jack shall be the same. This can be achieved using
the same type of jacks connected to one hydraulic pump, as shown in Fig. 4.6. The
jacks should have locking nuts in order to maintain the force induced on the slab
during the whole process of slab strengthening.
The jacks should be placed at axis-symmetric points at the slab bottom soffit as
close to the mid-span of the slab to maximize the flexural moment-to-shear force
ratio (M/V ratio). The jacks’ vertical movement shall be recorded during lifting in
order to ensure having the same force on the slab at each lifting point. In addition
to measurement of the slab movement, the induced forces on the slab should be
also recorded using calibrated pressure gauge connected to the pump. The maximum
uplift forces induced on the slab should not exceed the calculated values based on
the bending moment resulting from the slab self-weight and weights above (if any),
while the measured movement of the slab shall be only used to make certain that
balanced loads are exerted on the slab. The slab position after lifting should never
control the process since it is expected that the slab upward movement shall be less
4.4 Prestressing Flat Slabs 121
Jack
Jack
Jack
Jack
Pressure
Gauge
Pump
Fig. 4.6 Synchronized jacking used for slab lifting
than the existing slab downward deflection, and as a result, the overall slab deflection
will be reduced but the slab will not be back to its original position.
4.4 Prestressing Flat Slabs
Post-tensioned (PT), concrete slabs are strengthened with externally prestressed steel
tendons or carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) strips. When openings are needed
to be made in PT slabs and internal prestressing steel strands are cut or when reha-
bilitation of PT slabs is required, addition of prestressing reinforcement is recom-
mended either to compensate for the loss of the prestressing force or to improve the
slab structural capacity and/or serviceability.
The prestressing reinforcement is externally attached to the bottom or top soffit
of the concrete slab using steel plates and steel bolts. The prestressing steel shall
be straight and unbonded with constant eccentricity outside the concrete section,
as shown in Fig. 4.7. Steel strands should be well protected against corrosion with
coating and sheathing. Maintenance of such system should be implemented through
regular inspection to check the durability and integrity of the system through its
lifetime.
In case of using prestressed CFRP strips, special anchorage system should be used
to tension the strips. A comprehensive research was made to select the best system
for anchoring the CFRP strips (Helmy et al. 2017). The proposed system composes
of live- and dead-end anchorages as well as special fixation and additional anchor
that can be reused for different strips, as shown in Fig. 4.8. After tensioning the
strips, epoxy is used to bond the strips to the concrete surface and the live anchor
Fig. 4.7 External

prestressing of slabs with
steel
Prestressing
Bottom steel
soffit of
the slab
Steel
plates
may be reused again. The system was tested on simple and two-span continuous
slabs (El-Sefy 2016), and it was found out that the capacity of the continuous slabs
increases by adding prestressed CFRP strips, and at the same time, the serviceability
of the slabs improves.
Figure 4.9 shows the results of four slabs, a control slab without strengthening and
three other CFRP-strengthened slabs at different locations and length of prestressed
strips, as shown in the legend of the figure. Testing showed that there is no need to use
individual prestressing strips at the bottom soffit for each span, where one continuous
strip may be used efficiently to minimize the number of anchorages (see the curve in
green). Moreover, the overall slab capacity is not much reduced when eliminating the
Prestressing
anchor plates
Steel guide
Live end
anchor plates
Special fixation
Spherical Loading box Dead end

seating anchor plates Anchor bolts
Hydraulic Loading box
jack bolts
Fig. 4.8 Prestressing system for CFRP strips

4.4 Prestressing Flat Slabs 123
180
160
140
120 (A) (B) (C)

Load (kN)
100 Control
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 4.9 Load–deflection of slabs prestressed with externally bonded CFRP
top prestressing strip and only strengthening at the bottom soffit is used (see the curve
in blue). This phenomenon is explained by the secondary bending moment resulting
from the prestressing reinforcement, which induces positive bending moment at the
support section. Redistribution of the bending moment from the negative moment
section to the positive moment sections is also one of the reasons to obtain large load
capacity of the specimen strengthened only at the mid-span sections.
Figure 4.10 shows the primary, secondary and final bending moment resulting
from one continuous strip placed at the bottom soffit of the slab ignoring the effect
of the development length of the strips. While the primary bending moment is the
resultant of the prestressing force multiplied by the cable eccentricity, the secondary
bending moment (hyperstatic moment) is the moment resulting from the reaction
induced from prestressing at the internal support(s). The final bending moment due
to prestressing is the summation of the primary and the secondary moments. The
final moment at the support section for the given prestressed strip profile is half
the value of the prestressing force multiplied by the eccentricity of the strip and
resulting in tension at the bottom soffit in a direction opposite to that resulting from
gravity loads. This moment due to prestressing force should be linearly added to the
calculated bending moment from gravity loads when calculating the service stresses
in the concrete element.
Concrete beam
Mo = P e Primary moment
Secondary moment
M = 1.5 P e
Mf = P e
Final moment
Mf = 0.5 P e
Mf = P e
Final moment = Primary moment + Secondary moment
Fig. 4.10 Bending moments due to prestressing
4.5 Punching Shear
One of the most unfavorable failures of the flat slabs is due to punching shear since it
is catastrophic and brittle. Therefore, design codes enforce high safety factors when
designing for punching shear to ensure that this type of failure will not happen.
Addition of steel reinforcement in the high shear zone, such as stirrups, shear heads
or shear studs, provides some ductility, which is certainly required in design. Yet,
several errors may be the reason for a reduced punching shear strength in the flat
slabs such as casting concrete with compressive strength lower than the design value,
misplacing the punching shear reinforcement or overlooking tension forces induced
in the slab due to shrinkage restraint or temperature, which was proven to lessen the
concrete shear strength. In this case, strengthening is required to restore the punching
shear strength of the slab. This strengthening may be done by adding drop beams,
thickening the slab at the column’s vicinity using either steel or concrete caps or
adding punching shear reinforcement.
4.5.1 Slab Strengthening by Columns Caps
Steel or concrete caps may be used at the top of the columns fixed to the slab so that
the critical section of the slab in punching shear is shifted away from the column
face and, hence, increasing the overall slab punching shear capacity. Typical steel
cap used for slab strengthening is shown in Fig. 4.11. The steel cap is fixed to the
column and the slab soffit using steel dowels. Steel stiffeners are used to increase
the flexural stiffness of the steel plates fixed to the slab. Grout is used to fill the gap
4.5 Punching Shear 125
Steel
anchor
Grout
Stiffener
Steel cap
Prestressing
bar
Fig. 4.11 Punching shear steel cap strengthening
between the steel cap and the bottom slab soffit to ensure good contact between the
cap and the slab soffit. Strengthening efficiency shall be much reduced if crack or
small gap exists between the slab and the cap since there are no expected vertical
deformations of the slab in this zone under the effect of gravity loads. The shear
strength of the concrete slab at a perimeter “bo ” located at “d/2” from the cap, where
(d) is the slab depth, should be greater than the factored punching shear stress, vu ,
as per Eqs. (4.7)–(4.14).
vu ≤ φvc (4.7)
where
Vu γv Msc C AB
vu = + (4.8)
bo d Jc
γ v = 1 − γf , (4.9)
and
1
γf = / (4.10)
c1 +d
1+ 2
3 c2 +d
J c is a property of the assumed critical section analogous to polar moment of

inertia about the centroidal axis and calculated as per Eqs. (4.11) and (4.12) for the
slab at intermediate and edge columns, respectively.
d(c1 + d)3 (c1 + d)d 3 d(c2 + d)(c1 + d)2

Jc = + +
6 6 2 (4.11)
(Section at intermediate column)
2 2 1
Jc = d(c2 + d)(C AB )2 + d(CC D )3 + d(C AB )3 + (c1 + 0.5d)d 3
3 3 6 (4.12)
(Section at edge column)
M sc is the moment transferred from the slab to the columns below and above,
calculated at the centroidal axis of the critical section; the distances c1 , c2 and C AB
are defined in Figs. 4.12 and 4.13. The figures also show the critical slab section in
punching shear at intermediate and edge columns, respectively. It should be noted
that at edge column, the punching shear load, V uv , and moment resulting in punching
shear stresses, M sc , are calculated at the point (O' ), as shown in the figure.
⎛ √ ' ⎞
( 0.33λs )f c √
⎜ ⎟
vc = The least of ⎜ 0.17 + 0.33
β
λs f c' ⎟ (4.13)
⎝( ) √ ⎠
0.17 + 0.083α
bo
sd
λs f c'
√
2
λs (size effect) = ≤1 (4.14)
1 + 0.004d
vu, AB
vuv
A Moment vu, AB
Msc
vu, CD V
D B
Fig. 4.12 Shear stresses at of the critical section at an intermediate column

vu, AB
vuv
A V
vu, AB
vu, CD Msc
vuv
D
O’ B
O
Msc C
O
Mc O’ Slab
e
Msc = Mc – (V e)
Column
Moment at Joint
Fig. 4.13 Shear stresses at of the critical section at an edge column
where
νu applied shear stress
νc concrete shear strength
φ is the strength reduction factor = 0.75
β is the ratio of long-to-short sides of the column
αs 40 for interior columns, 30 for edge columns and 20 for corner columns.
√
The value of f c' shall not exceed 8.3 MPa.
4.5.2 Punching Shear Reinforcement
Adding punching shear steel reinforcement to increase the slab overall strength
requires through drilling in the slab at the column’s vicinity, which is usually
congested with the flexural steel reinforcement. Cutting the steel rebars while drilling
in the slab can be avoided using steel detector devices to locate the reinforcement.
Once the rebars are located, holes with diameter larger than that of the stirrups are
drilled and the steel shear bars are inserted through and tied from the top and bottom
concrete soffits using steel nuts, as shown in Fig. 4.14. The holes must be injected
with epoxy in order to protect the steel bars and prevent corrosion from happening.
Number of shear bars are determined based on the design and the aspect ratio of the
columns.
The total area of the steel bars at the critical section shall be designed according
to Eqs. (4.15)–(4.19). Two critical sections shall be checked; the first section at
Critical
Section
No.1 ≤ 2d
Critical
Section Through bolts
No.2 tied with nuts
Fig. 4.14 Slab strengthening in punching shear
(d/2) from the column face, where d is the depth of the concrete slab, is checked so
that the total shear capacity shall be the summation for both the concrete and steel
shear reinforcement capacities. The second section shall be checked so that only
the concrete shear strength at the polygon perimeter beyond the shear reinforcement
shall satisfy Eqs. (4.16) and (4.17). The spacing between shear bars should be less
than d/2. For the case of rectangular columns and large square columns, additional
steel reinforcement should be added so that the spacing between legs of the shear
reinforcement does not exceed “2d” in the transverse direction.
vu ≤ φ (vc + vs ) (4.15)
/
vc = 0.17λs f c' (4.16)
/
Av bo
λs may be taken = 1.0 if ≥ 0.17 f c' ; otherwise use Eq. 4.13 (4.17)
s fy
Av f yt
vs = (4.18)
bo s
/
Maximum vu = 0.66φ f c' (4.19)
where
ν s shear stress provided by steel reinforcement

Av is the sum of the area of the shear reinforcement on one peripheral line that is
geometrically similar to the column perimeter
s is the spacing between the peripheral lines in the direction perpendicular to the
column face
f y is the yield stress of the shear reinforcement ≤ 420 MPa.
Example 4.1 Concrete flat plate has a total thickness of 250 mm and depth to the top
steel reinforcement of 210 mm. The plate is supported on an intermediate column
with dimensions of 400 × 400 mm. It is required to check if the punching shear in
the slab is safe according to the ACI318-19 code knowing that the concrete cylinder
strength is 30 MPa and the applied loads are as follows:
VDL = 300 kN, VSID = 100 kN, VLL = 160 kN, and moment transferred to
column (M sc ) = 70 kNm.
Answer
The critical section of punching shear is at distance equals d/2 = 105 mm from the
column face. Therefore, bo = 4 × (400 + 210) = 2440 mm.
Considering Eqs. (4.9) and (4.10), γ f = 0.6 and γ v = 0.4.
Using Eq. (4.11), J c = 32,718,875,000 mm4 .
Vu = 1.2 × (300 + 100) + 1.6 × 160 = 736 kN
736 × 1000 0.4 × 70 × 106 × 620

vu = + 2
= 1.436 + 0.265 = 1.7 MPa
2440 × 210 32,718,875,000
To calculate vc as per Eq. (4.13), λs = 1.0, β = 1.0, α s = 40,

⎛ ⎞
1.81
vc = The least of ⎝ 2.74 ⎠ = 1.81 MPa.
2.5
Therefore, vu = 1.7 > φ vc = 0.75 × 1.81 = 1.36 MPa (unsafe).
Example 4.2 It is required to strengthen the slab given in Example 4.1 using shear
reinforcement with yield stress 0f 420 MPa.
Answer
Check if the maximum shear stresses are not exceeded as per Eq. (4.19) to avoid
shear compression failure. √
vu (maximum) = 0.66 × 0.75 30 = 2.71 MPa > vu = 1.7 MPa, therefore, steel
reinforcement may be used to strengthen the slab in punching shear.
Check shear stresses at d/2 from the column face (section 1, see Fig. 4.15):
√
vc = 0.17 × 1.0 × 30 = 0.93 MPa.
Critical
Section 2
Critical
Section 1 100
4 x 100 = 400
3 4
2 5
400 610
1 6
8 7
n=8 Row 1
Row 2
Row 3
Row 4
Row 5 SR = 5
Fig. 4.15 Strengthening of slab in punching shear
Using eight 12 mm diameter steel shear bars (n = 8), per row every 100 mm:
Av = 8 × 113 = 904 mm2 , bo = 4 × 610 = 2440 mm
904 × 420
vs = = 1.56 MPa
2440 × 100
Therefore, vu = 1.7 < φ(vc + vs ) = 0.75 × (0.93 + 1.56) = 1.87 MPa (safe).
Check shear stresses at section 2:
Use 5 rows of the shear reinforcement (SR = 5), therefore, bo = 4 × 610 + 4 × 707
= 5268 mm.
736 × 1000
vu = = 0.66 MPa < φ vc = 0.75 × 0.93 = 0.7 MPa (safe)
5268 × 210
4.6 Balcony Strengthening 131
4.6 Balcony Strengthening
One of the common problems is the defects in cantilever balconies, which suffer
from sagging and deterioration due to corrosion of steel reinforcement resulting
from rain and bad maintenance. The cantilevers may be only made of concrete slab
or slab resting on beams. It is sometimes required to do the strengthening works
without disturbing the use of the building; therefore, adding concrete overlay or
attaching steel or FRP reinforcement is not the best solution since it requires devel-
oping the reinforcement length inside the building. It is then recommended to do all
the strengthening works avoiding disruption to the use of the internal space in the
building. Adding inclined tension member (tie), or compression member (strut), to
support the cantilever slab, as shown in Fig. 4.16a, is one of the techniques that fulfill
the strengthening criteria. The inclined member shall be anchored at the slab-column
connection, and as close to the tip of the cantilever to provide support to the slab
edge.
Steel cantilever beams fixed to concrete columns and to the slab/beam bottom
soffit may be also used, as shown in Fig. 4.16b. All the steel parts used in any of the
systems should be well protected since it is subjected to rain and other environmental
condition that may lead to steel corrosion. Strengthening the concrete balcony may
be still required by adhering CFRP laminates at the slab bottom soffit in a direction
parallel to the slab free edge to enhance the section capacity.
Tie CFRP Steel

Strut laminates beam
CFRP laminates
a) Use of tie and/or strut b) Use of steel cantilever beam
Fig. 4.16 Strengthening of concrete balcony

4.7 Openings in Slabs
Openings in concrete floors are sometimes required after construction or in existing

buildings to pass air conditioning or heating ducts, electric cables or sanitary pipes.
Openings may be also needed for vertical movement between floors by adding
stairs or elevators. In general, openings create localized straining actions and may
change the load path in the slabs. The influence of openings on both the strength and
deformational behavior of the slab should be considered.
In case that openings are made with dimensions less than that given in the plan
shown on Fig. 4.17, externally bonded steel or FRP reinforcement at least equal to
that interrupted by the opening shall be added on the sides of the opening. Adequate
development length of the bonded reinforcement should be provided after the corners
of the opening. There are zones where openings should be avoided as possible in the
floors, such as in the punching shear zones around the columns, i.e., closer than four
times the slab thickness, unless detailed calculations of the floor strengthening are
provided.
For large openings, structural analysis of the floor and may be for the full structure
shall be required to calculate the changes in the overall behavior and add new elements
to restore both the capacity and serviceability of the elements. The new elements may
be steel or concrete beams, external prestressing or punching shear reinforcement
depending on the size and location of the opening.
Example 4.3 Concrete flat slab with 250 mm thickness is supported on columns
spaced every 8.0 m in both directions. At the middle of an interior panel, the slab
Column
Column strip
1
≤ 4 Bc
Opening
1 with any
≤ 8 Bc size
Opening
Opening
Column strip
Bc
Column strip Field strip Column strip
Fig. 4.17 Openings in different zones in concrete flat slab

4.7 Openings in Slabs 133
One plate
(100 x 8 mm) Column
Four bolts
D10@200mm
D12@140mm
Two plates
(100 x 8 mm)
Opening
2.0 x 2.0 Eight bolts
Opening D10@200mm
D10@200mm
2.0 x 2.0 D12@140mm
D12@140mm
Strengthening at the upper Side of the slab
A A
Steel plate
D10@200mm
D12@140mm
Grout
Concrete slab
Section A-A
Strengthening at the lower Side of the slab
Fig. 4.18 Slab strengthening around opening
is reinforced with 12 mm diameter bar every 140 mm as main reinforcement in

both directions and 10 mm diameter bar every 200 mm in both directions as top
reinforcement. The yield stress of the reinforcing steel is 420 MPa. It is required to
create an opening with dimensions of 2.0 × 2.0 m at the location shown in Fig. 4.18.
It is required to design the slab strengthening around the opening using steel plates
fixed to the slab with steel bolts. The yield stress of the steel plates and the bolts is
280 MPa.
Answer
Since the required opening is in the panel zone of intersection between two field strips,
the slab strengthening is designed by compensation of the cut steel reinforcement at
the top and bottom of the slab.
For the lower steel mesh,
The tensile force in the cut steel bars = 2 × 113 × 1000
140
× 420 × 1000
1
= 678.0 kN.
Required area of steel plates on each side of the opening = 2×280 = 1210 mm2 .
678×1000
Use two plates with dimensions 100 × 8 mm with area = 2(100 − 20) × 8 =
1280 mm2 .
Where holes of 20 mm diameter shall be made for the bolts.
Applying Eq. (3.6) to calculate the area of the steel bolts
678×1000
C or T
Av = = 2
= 1614 mm2
φ fyμ 0.75 × 280 × 1.0
Use eight bars of 16 mm diameter, as shown in the figure. Strengthening of the

slab due to cutting the top steel mesh is also shown in the figure.
4.8 Case Study 4.1
This case study is for a post-tensioned (PT), concrete floor under construction. The
concrete slab is divided into three parts by two expansion joints, shown in red in
Fig. 4.19. The two parts at the left and right are for twin towers, while the part in
the middle represents the podium slab. The expansion joints are constructed so that
the podium slab in the middle part (shaded in Blue), is resting on short cantilevers
“corbels” protruding from circular columns located on both the left and right parts
of the slab. Bearings were used to support the concrete slab on top of the corbels, as
shown in Fig. 4.20, where high shear forces exist in this zone of the slab.
The concrete floor experienced punching shear failure at two locations in the slab
close to the corbels. Figure 4.21 shows the failure in the slab, where cracking
occurred, and vertical deformation of the slab was observed by 45 mm with respect
to the supporting corbel after structural distress.
Left Right
Tower Tower
Podium
Expansion Concrete
Joint Corbel
Fig. 4.19 Basement floor slab

Fig. 4.20 Detail at the

expansion joint Expansion
Circular Joint
Column
PT Slab
Bearing
Corbel
Fig. 4.21 Punching failure of the slab
Design and construction details of the prestressing steel reinforcement of the

concrete slab indicated that the steel tendons were terminated in the slab away
from the corbel vicinity and were not extended up to the support. Terminating the
prestressing steel tendons before the corbel location reduced the punching shear
capacity of the slab below the demand level and resulted in slab failure. This was
aggravated by the developed tensile forces in the high shear zone due to the slab
restraint at the time of stressing, as shown in Fig. 4.22. Despite the fact that the slab
was placed on top of the bearings, friction still existed between the slab and the corbel
and the bearings did not allow for free movement in the horizontal direction, and
as a result, tensile stresses were developed in the shear zone. It is worth noting that
tensile forces reduce intensely the shear capacity of the concrete section, as shown
in Fig. 4.23.
Shear Zone
Prestressing Tendon
Friction
Compression
Tension Normal Force in the Slab
Fig. 4.22 Developed forces in the slab
Concrete Shear
Strength
Tension Compression
Normal Force on Concrete Section
Fig. 4.23 Concrete shear strength

4.8.2 Retrofitting Proposal
In order to overcome the structural distress in the shear zone, two alternatives were
proposed. The first alternative included removal of the concrete at the vicinity of
the bearings and recast the slab with an enlarged thickness and punching shear
reinforcement to satisfy the shear demand. This alternative required replacement
of the bearing with adequate capacity to allow for free movement in the horizontal
direction. This proposal has implications of stopping the use of the building during
construction process, which was rejected by the client.
The second strengthening alternative relied on implementing steel truss, anchored
to the circular column, to support the bottom of the slab, as shown in Fig. 4.24. The
steel truss is composed of inclined member tied with another horizontal steel member,
which are both connected to the column and the corbel by anchor bolts. Neoprene
bearing was used on top of the inclined steel member to allow for free movement at the
expansion joint. The damaged concrete was conventionally repaired after installing
the truss system. This strengthening scheme aimed at reducing the shear demand
as well as transferring the high shear zone away from the tension zone of the slab
resulting from early termination of the prestressing steel strands. The strengthening
scheme was successfully applied with minimum interruption of the construction time
schedule of the project. A fireproof intumescent paint was applied on the steel system
to protect it in the unlikely event of fire and keep the fire rating of the structure, as
per the original design.
Concrete Column
PT Slab
Steel New
Truss Bearing
Steel Anchors
Fig. 4.24 Steel truss used to support the PT slab

4.9 Case Study 4.2
This case study is for an office building which after construction, the owner decided
to change the use of the building to a commercial use. The “Plaza” building was
constructed of two basements, ground and five typical floors. The concrete floors
were constructed using post-tensioned (PT), flat plates with 220 mm thickness with
drop panels to increase the slab thickness above the columns at the most stressed
zones. The slabs were supported on square concrete columns with spans varying
from 6.0 to 11.0 m.
The structural design modifications were challenged by several constraints
including time limitations of construction, required clear head of each floor and
removal of one of the interior columns supporting the post-tensioned concrete slab.
After detailed discussions between the different parties of the project including the
main contractor, specialized sub-contractor, consultants and owner, it was decided
to implement different techniques in the strengthening design including concrete
jacketing, steel jacketing and carbon fiber reinforced polymer laminates.
4.9.1 Strengthening Demand
Strengthening of the PT slabs was required to account for the increase in the design
superimposed dead and live loads after the conversion of the building use from
“offices” to “commercial”. The new design included addition of large openings in
the slabs for escalators and elevators to allow for vertical movement between floors.
One of the openings was located above an interior column supporting a panel 11.0
× 8.28, as shown schematically in Fig. 4.25. The large openings had dimensions of
6.5 × 4.0 m, and repeated at three consecutive floors, as shown in Fig. 4.26. The
challenge was to demolish one of the interior columns, shaded in red in Fig. 4.25, in
the last floor which was located at the opening of the PT slab.
The slab was strengthened using a group of steel beams between the columns
and carbon fiber reinforced polymer laminates and strips to increase the slab flexural
capacity. The PT slab was propped and the opening was cut using diamond saw and
core drills, as shown in Fig. 4.27. The slab was monitored during the entire process to
ensure no excessive deflection of the slab. A new inclined column was cast, shaded in
blue in Fig. 4.25, to support the slab. Figure 4.28 shows the opening after demolishing
the supporting column and casting the newly added inclined column.
11.00
Newly added
Steel Beams
Prestressed CFRP
CFRP Removed
8.28 CFRP
Column
CFRP
Newly added
Steel Beams CFRP
Implanted
Inclined Column
Fig. 4.25 Schematic of the slab strengthening due to large opening
Fig. 4.26 Three openings in

three slabs
New Third opening

Inclined
column
Second opening
First opening
Fig. 4.27 Cutting the slab
After cutting several prestressing steel tendons, design showed that there is a
need to compensate the loss of the precompression in the slab. It was decided to
use externally bonded prestressed carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), strips,
as shown in Fig. 4.29. CFRP offered a corrosion-free solution and in the same time
did not alter the overall thickness of the concrete slab since its thickness was only
1.2 mm.
CFRP Strips
New Opening
Fig. 4.28 Opening in the slab and new inclined column
Fig. 4.29 Use of externally prestressed CFRP strips

Chapter 5
Sub-structure Strengthening
It is less customary to strengthen the foundations of structures compared to the

superstructure. This could be due to the high safety factors imposed by design codes
when designing foundations, in addition to that, in most of the soil types, the bearing
capacity at the foundation level increases with time because of the long-term induced
loads on the soil by the structure weight. The need to strengthen the footings may
be for the reason of increased loads or concrete deterioration after failure of the
insulation material protecting the footings. Concrete deterioration is aggravated by
the increase of surface water or increase in the underground water level, especially
when the soil is contaminated with chlorides, sulfates or other harmful chemicals.
It should be noted that the concrete cover of the footings plays an important role in
protecting the steel reinforcement from corrosion and as long as the concrete cover
is in good condition and well protected, the structural condition of the foundations
shall remain as per its first condition.
Inspection of the top surface of the footings requires removal of the slab-on-
ground and the soil fill above the footings; however, it is very challenging to inspect
the bottom concrete surface of the foundation despite it is more stressed than the
top surface. Research on integrating infrared thermography or ground penetrating
radar involving ultrasonic signals is still ongoing, especially for the footings bottom
concrete surface. Once the foundation is exposed, visual inspection as well as conven-
tional techniques of concrete evaluation is used to assess the structural condition of
the top concrete surface. In case of observing any concrete distress, repair work
should be carried out to reinstate the structural condition of the footings.
There are symptoms of soil movement, which may appear in the structure in the
form of either rigid body rotation, settlement, translation or inclined cracks in the
non-structural or structural elements. If any of those symptoms was observed, inves-
tigation of the soil beneath the structure shall be of a prime importance to evaluate
its characteristics before problem treatment. The investigation shall reveal that the
soil is capable to support the weight and the external loads imposed on the struc-
ture without excessive movement; otherwise, soil and/or sub-structure strengthening
should be implemented to ensure enough capacity/behavior of the foundations. There
144 5 Sub-structure Strengthening
are several methods for the soil treatment including grout injection, water submerge
or soil confinement be means of piling around the structure. After ensuring that the
soil treatment has succeeded to stop the movement of the structure, which can be
done by continuous monitoring of the structure, foundations shall be strengthened
by any of the means hereafter.
5.1 Strengthening of Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundations including isolated and mat foundations may be strengthened

in case of distress provided that the soil underneath can safely resist the induced
loads without excessive settlement. The typical strengthening procedure of isolated
footings is by increasing the depth and may be the width of the concrete footing using
concrete jacket, as shown in Fig. 5.1a. Increasing the depth of the foundations shall
enhance both the flexural and shear capacity of the footing. The increase of flexural
resistance is due to increase of the lever arm between the compression in the concrete
and tension in the bottom steel reinforcement; however, the area of the bottom steel
reinforcement cannot be increased. In this case, the designer should ensure that the
minimum steel ratio bound by design codes, after section increase in depth, is not
violated; otherwise, the designer should treat the footings as if it is made of plain
concrete. The increase in one-way and two-way (punching), shear strength is due to
increase of the overall area resisting shear forces. Increasing the width of the isolated
footings shall reduce the bearing stresses on the existing foundations resulting from
the additional loads on the building not existing at the time of strengthening.
When designing the concrete jacket of the isolated footings, the inherent stresses
in the original section due to all applied loads at the time of strengthening shall be
accounted for when calculating the capacity of the strengthened footing. The concrete
jacket should be well connected to the original section by calculated number of shear
dowels to ensure no slip occurs at the interface between the old and new concrete.
Those dowels should be designed based on the interfacial shear force divided by
the shear capacity of the dowels, as per Chap. 3. The composite section shall be
resisting the additional loads applied on the structure after construction completion
of the concrete jacket. Algebraic superposition should be made for the stresses in the
original section including the inherent stresses and additional stresses after jacket
construction.
Strengthening of the mat foundation is different from that of the isolated footings
since the indeterminacy of the concrete member provides an additional safety factor,
which can be realized by plastic analysis of the structural member. This can be
implemented by moment redistribution between the positive and negative moments
at the column location and at the mid-span, as shown in Fig. 5.1b. The bending
moment at the column location may be redistributed on the account of the moment
at the mid-span section, where its capacity can be increased by strengthening the
top surface of the raft using any of the prescribed techniques, i.e., concrete jacket
or by bonding steel or FRP reinforcement. Limits of the moment redistribution,
5.1 Strengthening of Shallow Foundations 145
a) Concrete jacket of isolated footing
Moment
Bending moment diagram redistribution
Redistributed bending moment diagram
b) Concrete jacket of mat foundation
Fig. 5.1 Strengthening of isolated and mat foundations
as per the ACI318-19, are up to 20% provided that the net tensile strain in the steel
reinforcement at flexural capacity is more than 0.0075, as shown in Fig. 1.20. Design
of the external reinforcement used for strengthening, whether its steel plates or FRP
strips, is as per Chap. 3. In all cases, the external reinforcement should be well
protected from any aggravation that may be encountered from the surrounding soil.
5.1.1 Conversion of Shallow to Deep Foundations
Soil investigations could show that the soil beneath the shallow concrete footings
cannot sustain the loads induced on the structure. In those cases, shallow foundations
may be converted to deep foundations to reach lower soil stratum with better perfor-
mance, and hence, the soil capacity at the new foundation level is increased. This
conversion may be done by underpinning the existing footings with small diameter
piles or adding concrete caissons. In both cases, the new structural elements should
be well connected to the existing foundations to ensure that all loads are transferred
to the lower soil strata.
Time is an important factor in the transfer of the structure loads to the good lower
soil strata since most of the dead loads are in effect while the new structural elements
(piles or caissons), are constructed. The dead load of the structure shall be carried
only by the existing footings, while the new loads (live and lateral loads) shall be
shared between the old and new footings. The new elements shall only participate
in carrying those loads when excessive settlement of the soil beneath the existing
footings occur.
5.1.2 Foundations Underpinning
Foundations underpinning is carried out by adding special type of small diameter

bored piles known as needle-piles, or micro-piles with diameter less than 300 mm
(normally between 120 and 250 mm). Those piles can carry high axial capacity
because of the special method of construction during which concrete or mortar is
forced into the soil. Due to its small diameter, micro-piles can sustain axial loads by
skin friction at their interface with the surrounding soil layers. Those piles have much
smaller lateral resistance due to its small diameter; however, it may be constructed
with an angle to participate in resisting the lateral loads on the structures.
Figure 5.2 shows typical construction of the micro-piles, where drilling the
concrete foundation is executed to insert the steel pipe used as pile casing. Large
diameter steel bars are placed in the casing and grout is pumped under pressure to
fill the casing and the toe of the pile. Finally, anchor plate is welded to the steel
casing to work as an anchorage and provide the required bearing of the pile. Special
reinforcement should be added at the vicinity of the steel anchor plate to resist the
localized stresses induced by end bearing.
5.1.3 Use of Concrete Caissons
In case that a structure is suffering from soil movement and the good soil stratum is
few meters away from the foundation level, strengthening may be done so that the
loads of the structure are transmitted to the deeper level using caissons. Caissons,
sometimes called “piers”, are made by auguring a deep hole into the ground, and then
filling it with either plain or reinforced concrete. Caissons with relatively small height
and large diameter are constructed in the free areas between the existing foundations.
Reinforced concrete mat is then cast at the level of the existing foundation, while
connected with both the existing foundations and the concrete columns using steel
dowels. The mat foundation is then supported on the caissons, as shown in Fig. 5.3.
5.2 Retaining Walls
Deformations of reinforced concrete retaining walls (RW), are likely happening from
soil movement, which either happening due to nonconformity in the soil properties
5.2 Retaining Walls 147
Concrete footing
Pile cap
anchorage `
Steel
casing
Weak
soil
Pile length
Steel
Reinforcing bar
Dense
soil
Grout
Fig. 5.2 Strengthening of foundations using micro-piles
Existing
footing
Caisson
Caissons
Caisson
Fig. 5.3 New mat foundation supported on newly cast plain concrete caissons
After
strengthening
Tied steel Excavation
bar line
Before
Concrete Foam layer strengthening
slab
a) Deformation of RW b) Strengthening of RW c) Load diagram d) Bending moment
Fig. 5.4 Strengthening of retaining wall
or non-uniform pressure on the soil induced from neighboring structures, as shown

in Fig. 5.4a. It is then logical to think how to lessen the pressure on the retaining walls
or to reduce the resulting straining actions to minimize its deformations. One of the
techniques to reduce the overall turning moment on a wall is to add counterweight
causing rotation in an opposite direction to that resulting from the earth pressure.
This counterweight is created by adding a reinforced concrete slab, called “shelf
slab”, at the mid-height of the wall, as shown in Fig. 5.4b.
The shelf slab is constructed after excavating the soil behind the wall and inserting
large diameter reinforcing bars at constant intervals along the wall to act as top
reinforcement of the new cantilever slab. The bar is anchored with nuts from both
ends to develop the tensile force in the bar. The counterweight is created by the
weight of the soil carried by the new slab. It is important to provide compressible
material beneath the concrete slab, such as polystyrene foam, to allow for the slab
vertical deformations when loaded with soil fill above. The cantilever slab shall
induce bending moment on the wall that will reduce the overall bending moment
resulting from earth pressure, as shown in Fig. 5.4c, d.
Example 5.1 Reinforced concrete mat foundation has a total thickness of 800 mm
and a depth from the compression face of the mat to the tensile reinforcement of
750 mm. The mat is reinforced with steel mesh of eight bars of 22 mm diameter
bars each direction at the bottom face and eight bars of 18 mm diameter bars each
direction at the top face, as shown in Fig. 5.5.
The concrete compressive strength is 35 MPa, while the yield stress of the steel
is 420 MPa. It is required to propose a strengthening procedure for the concrete mat
so that it can carry the following unfactored bending moments (see Fig. 5.5):
At the column sections (Point A), MDL = 500 kNm per meter, MLL = 250 kNm
per meter.
At the mid-span section (Point B), MDL = 300 kNm per meter, MLL = 150 kNm
per meter.
5.2 Retaining Walls 149
8 bars 18 mm Column Column

diameter
800 mm
M (Point B)
(A) Raft (A)
8 bars 22 mm (B)
diameter
Section in concrete raft M (Point A) Bending moment concrete raft
Fig. 5.5 Concrete raft (Example 5.1)
Answer
The factored moment is calculated using the equation “M u = 1.2 MDL + 1.6 MLL”,
therefore, at Point “A”: M u = 1000 kNm per meter and at Point “B”: M u = 600 kNm
per meter.
As per Chap. 3,
Point “A”, the section capacity, M r = 837.5 kNm per meter < 1000 kNm, “unsafe”.
Steel tensile strain at section capacity, εt = 0.0389.
Point “B”, M r = 566 kNm per meter < 600 kNm, “unsafe”, Steel tensile strain,
εt = 0.0596.
It is recommended to redistribute the bending moment so that sections at the
columns, “A”, shall have a bending moment equal to their capacities “837.5 kNm”,
while the bending moment at section “B” shall be accordingly increased, as shown
in Fig. 5.6. This is mainly since increasing the steel reinforcement at the bottom of
the raft is not possible.
As per Fig. 1.20, the maximum percentage of moment redistribution is 20% at
net tensile strain of 0.02,
Percent of redistributed moment at section “A” = 1000−837.5
1000
= 16.25% < 20%
(ok).
Column Column
Mu = 762.5
Mu = 600
(A) (A)
(B)
Mu = 837.5 Mu = 837.5
Mu = 1000 Mu = 1000
Applied bending moment Redistributed bending moment
Fig. 5.6 Moment redistribution of the raft

The increased bending moment at section “B” = 1000 + 600 − 837.5 =

762.5 kNm per meter.
The top surface of the concrete raft may be strengthened using reinforced concrete
jacket, externally fixed steel plates or externally bonded CFRP laminates to increase
its flexural capacity from 566 to 762.5 kNm per meter.
5.3 Case Study 5.1
This case study is for a high-rise building, which consists of two basements, ground
floor, 30+ typical floors and roof. The structural system of the floors consists of
reinforced concrete flat slabs supported on concrete columns and shear walls. The
vertical elements in the building are supported on concrete raft with varying thickness,
which in turns supported on piles. The built up area of the basements is larger than
that of the typical floor (see plan in Fig. 5.7). The building is subjected to uplift forces
due to high ground water table.
The concrete raft experienced through cracks at the vicinity of the piles and as a
result the ground water found its way inside the lower basement. It was clear that the
Piles
Building
A A
Water
Building Level Ground Floor
Basements Piles
Raft
Raft
Plan View Section A-A
Fig. 5.7 Layout of the building

Fig. 5.8 Punching shear cracks in the raft
cracks were due to punching shear of the raft supporting the outer piles. Figure 5.8
shows picture of the punching shear cracks at the top surface of the raft.
Analysis of the raft foundations under the effect of gravity loads due to the
weight of the building and uplift forces induced from the high water table resulted in
compression on most of the piles and tension in other piles. The analysis was made
using 3D-finite element model for the raft and the piles, where the raft was modeled
using shell elements, divided into sections based on its thickness. The piles were
modeled using frame elements with lateral joint springs every one meter along its
depth in two perpendicular directions.
Figure 5.9 shows a schematic of the loads on the raft, displacement of the raft and
induced forces on the piles. It is clear that in case of uplift induced from the high
water table, outer piles in the area away from the footprint of the tower are subjected
to tensile forces that caused pull-out of piles from the raft. The small thickness raft
in that area helped in obtaining high punching shear stresses in the raft away from
the tower vicinity.
5.3.2 Punching Shear Check
Punching shear failure was checked for the raft taking into consideration that the piles
are subjected to tension. Figure 5.10 proposes two possible modes of failure that are
used to check the resistance against pull-out of the piles. The first mode occurs with
a failure plane outside the pile core, while the second mode occurs inside the pile
core.
The checks against the possible failure modes show that some of the external piles
are unsafe and would fail by pull-out or reverse punching shear failure.
The first mode may occur provided that proper confinement is provided for the
pile reinforcement inside the raft. The second mode represents the other extreme
where pile reinforcement is flared inside the raft.
The actual shear stresses in the raft are calculated by multiplying the area of the
failure plane by the shear strength of the concrete raft, where the area of the failure
Building
Deformed
Raft Ground Floor
Basements
Uplift Forces
Compression
Tension
Forces on Piles
Fig. 5.9 Loads on raft and forces on piles
RC Raft Cone Frustum RC Raft Cylinder
Failure Failure Cone

Cylinder
Surface Surface Frustum
Pile Pile
Failure Mode 1 Failure Mode 2
Fig. 5.10 Punching shear failure modes

Fig. 5.11 Punching shear

failure plane
plane is calculated using the formula given in Fig. 5.11. Punching shear failure occurs
when the shear stress in the raft exceeds the concrete shear strength. Calculations
showed that the second mode of failure is the governing mode.
5.3.3 Proposed Retrofitting Scheme
The observed crack patterns for two piles in the raft (see Fig. 5.8) clearly draw a map
of the pile location and its circumference, which indicates a mode of failure that lies
in between the aforementioned failure modes. It is obvious that the failure planes are
located along the pile circumference; therefore, any retrofitting scheme should have
proper amount of shear reinforcement crossing that plane. Therefore, the concept
of the foundation retrofit relied on enhancing its shear capacity by inserting steel
reinforcement crossing the existing and anticipated cracks. The repair procedure is
summarized as follows:
1. Demolish Cracked Pile Tops
In this step, hydro-demolition was used to remove the cracked concrete all around
the piles with the dimensions as shown in Fig. 5.12. All debris were cleared, and
a surface roughness of a minimum of 5 mm should be achieved as well as 45°
inclined surface should be formed, as shown Fig. 5.12a.
2. Water Proofing and Pile Confinement
A proper crystalline water proofing material was applied in two perpendicular
coats to the formed surface. Pile reinforcement was straightened out and confined
with spiral reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 5.12b.
3. Installation of Horizontal Reinforcement
Additional U-shape steel reinforcement was planted using epoxy in the reinforced
concrete raft, as shown Fig. 5.12c. Two layers of the steel reinforcement were
Roughened
Surface (5 mm) Crystalline Water
Concrete Raft Existing Raft Proofing
45o 45o 45o 45o
Pile Pile
Spiral
Reinforcement
(a) Step 1: Cutting Concrete (b) Step 2: Water Proofing

150 mm
Epoxy Embedded Concrete Overlay
RC Raft Dowels
Pile Pile
(c) Step 3: Planted Reinforcement (d) Step 4: Concrete Overlay
Fig. 5.12 Strengthening steps of the concrete raft
implemented; one at the level of the original raft top reinforcement and one-
layer mid-way in the demolished thickness. The planted reinforcement crossed
the potential cracks and added to the punching shear resistance of the raft.
4. Installation of Overlay Reinforcement
A 150 mm concrete overlay was cast on the top of the existing raft along with
the demolished parts around the piles. The entire surface of the raft was cleared
of debris and roughened to 5 mm amplitude. A top mesh reinforcement layer
was applied to the top of the overlay with a minimum cover of 35 mm, as shown
Fig. 5.12d. Proper bonding agent was applied to the old substrate, and concrete
with compressive strength of 40 MPa was used for the overlay with crystalline
admixture.
5.4 Case Study 5.2
The Panorama building in one of the hotels in the city of Sharm-El-Shaikh, Egypt, is
11.0 m wide and 40.0 m long with a triangular shape in plan. The one-story building
is located close to the edge of a hill, as shown in Fig. 5.13. The ground level of the
building is divided and used for accommodation, while the roof was not used. It was
Grass
10.00
Water seepage
Fig. 5.13 Location of the Panorama building
the owner’s desire to use the roof as an open-air café having a view of the city from
the top of the hill. The building consists of reinforced concrete slabs supported on
rectangular beams and reinforced concrete columns.
After two years of construction, both the slabs and beams were severely cracked,
as shown in Fig. 5.14. The crack width was up to 1.0 mm at some locations. The
cracks were observed on the entire width of the slab, at the fourth bay away from
the hill, crossing all beams and walls. Flexural and shear cracks were also observed
at some of the beams. The Parapet of the roof, which is made of brick, was severely
cracked. The cracks were wide at the top of the parapet, reducing in width toward
the bottom. The location of these cracks coincided with the cracks in the concrete
slab. No cracks were observed in the columns.
5.4.1 Problem Diagnosis
The crack pattern of the structure indicated that differential settlement between the
foundations of the building had occurred. The columns close to the edge of the hill
settled more than the interior columns causing a rigid body movement of that part of
the structure (part 1 in Fig. 5.14), as well as cracks across the entire building.
Soil pits were carried out to determine the properties of the soil. The investigations
showed a layer of fine sand beneath the shallow foundations. It is believed that the
fine sand was washed out of the hill with the water drained from spraying plants close
to the building (see Fig. 5.13). The washed sand found its way out from the side of the
Part 1
Part 2 Close to the cliff
Away from
the cliff
16.0
Beams
cracked
in shear
Beams cracked
in flexure
Beam 31.0
cracked
in torsion
Fig. 5.14 Cracking in the slab of the Panorama building
hill causing large settlement of the footings adjacent to the hill. The investigations
also showed a good soil stratum located 10.0 m below the ground level.
5.4.2 Proposed Strengthening Scheme
Before starting implementation of the strengthening works, it was decided to move

the plants away from the building and eliminate any source of water close to the
foundation of the building. In the first phase of the strengthening scheme, it was
essential to eliminate the cause of the problem and stop the settlement of the founda-
tions before remedy of the superstructure. A rigid reinforced concrete mat foundation
supported on plain concrete caissons was cast to support the columns, as shown in
Fig. 5.15. The caissons were 1.0-m diameter and 10 m high, bearing on the good
soil stratum and at least one caisson was cast around each existing column. In order
to ensure that the deformation of the structure was stopped after casting the new
foundation, the cracks were monitored to record any changes. Several crack meters
were installed crossing the existing cracks in the slabs and beams. It was ensured
that no further development of the cracks was observed before commencement in
strengthening of the superstructure.
The second phase of the strengthening scheme was to restore the building and
increase the structural capacity of both the slabs and beams to resist higher live loads.
CFRP strips and laminates were used to strengthen the slabs and beams in flexure
and shear, as shown in Fig. 5.16. The measured crack width of the slabs and beams
was used to estimate the tensile stress in the steel reinforcement. The required area
of CFRP was calculated to allow for double the live load, accounting for the increase
in the stress of the steel reinforcement.
Mat foundation Existing

footings
Roof
slab
Plain concrete caissons
Fig. 5.15 Strengthening of the foundations
Fig. 5.16 Strengthening of the superstructure with CFRP

Chapter 6
Case Studies
This chapter introduces different case studies addressing special cases either for
the loading type or structure type. Recognition of the problem and its causes are
the success key to mitigate the distress of the structure. It is important to address
different strengthening schemes after detailed analysis of the problem since there
is no unique solution for the problem. The most efficient solution is the one allows
for minimum disruption along with the functionality of the structure and cost of
strengthening implementation. Usually, monitoring of the structure after mitigation
is important especially when strengthening involves new techniques or confidence
in the information of the existing structure is not high.
6.1 Case Study 6.1
This case study is for a cooling bed in an industrial plant for steel manufacturing,
where hot steel elements are cooled down while being moved on an inclined plane on
top of reinforced concrete footings. Figure 6.1 shows a part plan of the cooling bed
foundations and typical view for one of the footings (2.0 × 2.0 × 3.7 m). As a result
of the cooling process, temperature rises at the concrete surface of the footings with
different values reaching up to 135 °C. The elevated temperature is a main design
criterion for such structure, which may have not been considered in the original
design.
6.1.1 Problem Statement
The visual inspection revealed that footings were affected by the high temperature
and relatively wide cracks on all faces of the footings were recorded. The temperature
160 6 Case Studies
Fig. 6.1 Footings plan and view
readings report for the affected footings showed that the recorded surface tempera-
tures on the concrete ranged from 50 to 135 °C. NDT reports showed that the vertical
steel reinforcement in the footings is spaced from 220 to 280 mm across the footing,
and the concrete cover ranges between 30 and 80 mm. As for the horizontal steel, the
spacing was found to vary between 140 and 160 mm, and a concrete cover between
20 and 60 mm was measured. Furthermore, the concrete compressive strength was
found to be at 34 MPa.
6.1.2 Finite Element Analysis
In order to investigate the effect of the high surface temperature of the concrete
foundations, a three-dimensional finite element model was built up and analyzed.
The model was created using elastic 20-node thermally coupled brick, tri-quadratic
displacement, tri-linear temperature elements to model the concrete continuum and
elastic 3-node 3D thermally coupled truss elements to model the steel reinforcement.
Temperature loading was applied on the footing model as uniform surface temper-
ature using average values of the recorded measurements at each face. The thermal
properties of the used materials were taken as per Table 6.1.
Figure 6.2 shows a plot of the principal stresses contour on the front and back
faces of the footing and the associated observed crack pattern. The contour shows the
zones, where the principal tensile stresses are in excess of 3 MPa, which was assumed
to be the tensile strength of the concrete. The results confirm, to high degree, the
Table 6.1 Assumed material

Material Thermal expansion Thermal conductivity
properties in the foundations
(mm/mm °C) (W/(mm °C))
analytical model
Concrete 10.0−6 3
Steel 13.5−6 45
observed crack pattern shown in the figure, which may be visualized as a consequence
of the thermal expansion of the concrete cover.
The depth of cracks inside the footings was also investigated by plotting the
principal stresses contour in excess of 3.0 MPa on a section cut through the footing.
Figure 6.3 shows that the tensile stresses that exceeded the concrete tensile strength
go as deep as 150 mm from the surface. The depth of some cracks was measured on
site to be extending up to 200 mm far from the surface, which further verifies the
validity of the developed model. FE analysis also showed that the tensile stresses in
the steel reinforcement of the footing were always less than the yield stress of the
reinforcement.
Fig. 6.2 Contour of maximum principal stresses versus crack pattern
Fig. 6.3 Section cut of the contour of maximum principal stresses

162 6 Case Studies
6.1.3 Strengthening Scheme
The structural problems with the concrete foundations of the cooling bed may be
viewed as a result of the weak tensile strength of the concrete cover with small and
variable thickness. It is believed that cracking of the concrete footing does not affect
its structural capacity, but rather its durability. In order to restore the footing original
condition and to maintain the durability of the concrete footing and prevent any steel
corrosion, the following conventional retrofitting scheme was implemented:
– Peeling of the entire concrete cover of the footing to the level of the steel
reinforcement.
– Injection of any visible cracks with pressured low-viscous material.
– Insertion of steel dowels (M16 on 250 mm grid at each face).
– Installation of welded wire mesh all around the footing with adequate overlap and
development length.
– Casting a new concrete cover of a minimum of 60 mm thickness with the steel mesh
20 mm away from the exterior face. The concrete had characteristic compressive
strength of 60 MPa.
It should be noted that all used materials had high “glass transition temperature
(T g )” to withstand the high temperature at the concrete surface.
6.2 Case Study 6.2
Concrete dolphin close to the shore of the Mediterranean Sea was exposed to a ship
hit resulted in various degrees of flexural damage in the top part of the concrete pile.
The structure is 8.0 × 8.0 m supported on 4 inclined piles, as shown in Fig. 6.4. The
piles were constructed with steel casing with its top level above the sea level and
600 mm below the bottom level of the pile cap. The horizontal component caused
by the impact force of the ship hit resulted in structural damage in the part of the
pile between the steel casing and the bottom surface of the pile caps, as shown in
Figs. 6.5 and 6.6. Concerning the damaged piles, it was noted that two distinct levels
of flexural damage occurred in the concrete piles, as follows:
1. High Level of Flexural Damage (Piles where Concrete Crushing Occurred):
This category of flexural damage involved a few number of piles and was char-
acterized by a large number of flexural cracks with large widths accompanied
by concrete crushing in the opposite side. This clearly reveals the occurrence of
flexural failures in these regions, involving the high tensile stresses in the internal
steel reinforcing bars and the associated loss of the initial flexural capacity under
horizontal loads.
2. Low Level of Flexural Damage (Piles where Only Concrete Cracking Occurred):
This category of flexural damage involved the rest of the damaged piles and
was characterized by a fewer number of flexural cracks with smaller widths. No
Fig. 6.4 Overview of the

dolphins
Fig. 6.5 Concrete crushing
concrete crushing was observed in this category, hence, revealing that only a
partial loss of the initial flexural capacity under horizontal loads is suspected in
these regions.
6.2.1 Strengthening Methodology
Strengthening of the damaged piles aimed at retaining the flexural capacity and
integrity of the top parts of the piles. The strengthening methodology included appli-
cation of both glass and carbon fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP), and (CFRP) sheets
as well as CFRP anchors, as shown schematically in Fig. 6.7 and as follows:
164 6 Case Studies
Fig. 6.6 Large widths

flexural cracks
Pile cap CFRP

anchors
500
B 500 Pile B
CFRP CFRP anchors
laminates 150
A A
Top of steel casing Layers of
300 GFRP and CFRP
Water Level CFRP
laminates
Elevation B-B Plan A-A
Fig. 6.7 FRP strengthening of the piled dolphin
1. The visible cracks in the piles were injected with low viscosity epoxy resin using
adequate pressure in predrilled holes or fixed nipples. The exposed concrete part
of the pile was repaired with epoxy mortar in order to be ready to attach the FRP
on its surface.
2. The intersection between the pile and the pile cap was rounded using repair mortar
with a minimum radius of 50 mm. This is to avoid any stress concentration in
the FRP laminates at the edges of the concrete section.
3. One layer of GFRP sheets was applied on the top 300 mm of the steel casing
in order to isolate the steel pipe from the CFRP sheets, which will be adhered
on top of the GFRP sheets. The reason behind application of the GFRP sheets
is to prevent galvanic corrosion, which is likely to occur if carbon and steel are
in touch with each other. This corrosion will affect the structural integrity and
capacity of the CFRP sheets.
4. One layer of CFRP sheets was applied, while the fibers oriented parallel to the
centerline of the piles, to increase the flexural strength of the top part of the
pile. The sheets were bonded to the top 300 mm of the steel casing and applied
partially on the repair mortar on top of the exposed concrete part of the pile. The
sheets were extended to the bottom of the pile cap with a length of 500 mm and
width of 150 mm, as shown in Fig. 6.7.
5. CFRP anchors were applied with a 6 mm equivalent diameter and uniformly
spaced around the circumference of the pile at the intersection with the pile
cap. Another CFRP anchors were applied and uniformly distributed around the
circumference of the pile, as shown in Fig. 6.8. The anchors were applied 75 mm
away from the end of each CFRP sheet. Figure 6.9 shows the steps of CFRP
anchor application.
6. Two more layers of CFRP sheets were applied, while the fibers oriented parallel
to the centerlines of the piles to add to the pile flexural capacity. The sheets
covered 600 mm from the top of the piles and extended to the bottom of the pile
cap with a length of 300 mm and width of 150 mm.
Fig. 6.8 Preparation of

CFRP anchors application
Fig. 6.9 Application steps of CFRP anchor

166 6 Case Studies
7. Two final layers of CFRP sheets were applied, while the fibers oriented perpen-
dicular to the centerlines of the piles, as shown in Fig. 6.10 to protect the internal
CFRP sheets from the environmental conditions. Protection of the CFRP sheets
was applied by applying special paint on top of the FRP, as shown in Fig. 6.11.
A load test was carried out after rehabilitation of the piles to verify the validity of
the strengthening scheme. The test was conducted by having a ship with a specific
weight traveling at a fixed low speed hitting the edge of the dolphin. No cracks were
recognized, and the horizontal movement of the pile cap was measured and found to
be acceptable.
Fig. 6.10 CFRP in the

transverse direction
Fig. 6.11 Dolphin after

rehabilitation
6.3 Case Study 6.3
A multi-story building consists of 20 floors used as hotel in the first five floors and
for residential use in the remaining top floors. The sixth floor is a transfer slab, with
1.0-m thickness, where the columns distribution in plan is changed to accommodate
the different functions of all floors. The transfer floor was used to accommodate
the electromechanical equipment for the entire building. The columns distribution
below and above the sixth floor level, shown in Fig. 6.12, indicates that there is a
shift in the alignment of the vertical supporting elements, especially at the façade of
the building.
It was the owner request to add three more floors on top of the building and add a
heavy-weight marble cladding at the south façade, when the calculations showed that
the transfer slab need strengthening at some locations to allow for the new loads. A
three-dimensional finite element model showed that the transfer slab at the vicinity of
four vertical elements (number 2, 14, 16 and 17, see Fig. 6.12) requires strengthening
with a large percentage in flexure and shear. The conventional techniques using
external steel or FRP reinforcement or concrete jacketing were studied and found to be
impractical due to the large amount of strengthening, in addition to the owner request
Fig. 6.12 Plan of the transfer slab

168 6 Case Studies
not to evacuate the sixth floor during construction. Accordingly, it was decided to
follow a different approach in the slab strengthening.
6.3.1 Strengthening Scheme
The main idea of the proposed strengthening scheme relied on redirecting the vertical
load of the top supported floors to the supporting columns and walls below the transfer
slab. This was achieved by adding inclined struts connecting the shifted supporting
element to the columns below, as shown in Fig. 6.13. Two steel struts were used at
each location of the four vertical elements (2, 14, 16 and 17) to carry their share
of the applied loads on the vertical elements. Simple truss analysis, as per shown in
Fig. 6.13, was used to calculate the compression forces in the struts (F 1 ) and resulting
tension force in the slab above (F 2 ). Table 6.2 summarizes the results of the analysis
and the forces in the truss model.
Fig. 6.13 Strengthening scheme of the transfer slab
Table 6.2 Truss model analysis summary

Element Load (P) (kN) Axis shift (m) F 1 (kN) F 2 (kN) Number of struts
C2 2911 1.06 3073 985 2
C16 4200 0.75 4318 1006 2
C17 4220 1.00 4430 1348 2
W14 3965 1.20 4246 1520 2
It should be noted that the strengthening system will share in carrying the loads
applied on the structure after construction completion of all the works. The self-
weight of the existing structure and any other loads existed on the structure before
applying the strengthening works were carried completely by the existing system
before strengthening.
“H” steel members were used to carry the compression in the strut and fixed to the
slabs at the top and bottom using steel plates and anchor bolts. The slab at the seventh
floor was strengthened at its top and bottom using prestressing steel tendons to carry
the induced tension component resulting from the inclined struts. The tendons at the
top of the slab were embedded in 100-mm concrete overlay, while the externally
applied prestressing steel tendons at the slab bottom surface were well protected
against corrosion since they were left exposed. The used tendons applied on the top
of the slab were anchored in flat ducts and the concrete overlay was connected to the
existing 250 mm slab using epoxy installed shear dowels.
Applying this strengthening concept had multiple advantages such as reducing
the deflections at the end of the transfer cantilever slab, which could have affected
the façade of the top floors negatively. The scheme also minimized the quantities
of strengthening steel elements when compared to conventional schemes relying on
increasing the capacity of the transfer slab. Moreover, the system was implemented
without interruption of the use of the electromechanical equipment placed in the
sixth floor.
6.4 Case Study 6.4
A residential complex consists of several villas were under construction in a city

situated in a high seismic zone, where the city was codified to have a design ground
acceleration (ag ) of “0.25 g”. The villas were one and two stories high made of
concrete skeleton with a small footprint in plan. The structural design peer review
found out that the earthquake loads were not considered in the design, while the
contractor was half way in construction. Structural analysis of the villas showed that
large concrete jackets are needed for retrofitting the columns in order to resist the
earthquake loads, which was rejected by the architect since it has a negative impact
on the interior design of the villas. In order to meet the time schedule of the project
and to fulfill the architect requirements, an innovative solution was implemented to
ensure that the structures of the villas are earthquake resistant.
6.4.1 Retrofitting Scheme
After review of the architectural plans of the villas, it was observed that infill walls
were located at two exterior façades and around the interior stairs. The strengthening
idea was based on converting some of the infill walls to structural walls resisting the
170 6 Case Studies
Fig. 6.14 Strengthening of existing walls and construction of new walls
earthquake loads. Consideration of the infill walls to resist the lateral loads will result
in reduction of the straining actions in the vertical concrete elements; yet, it has a
disadvantage of increasing the overall stiffness of the structure and hence increasing
the earthquake load demand. The tradeoff between increasing the number of lateral-
resistant walls and stiffness of the building was calculated to select the infill walls
converted to structural walls.
After a number of the infill walls was selected to participate in the lateral load
resistance, strengthening of those walls was applied. The strengthening included
connecting the side boundaries of the walls to the concrete skeleton using galva-
nized steel plates anchored with steel bolts. At the top of the wall, the top row was
dismantled and low shrinkage grout was cast, while connected to the beam on top
with stainless steel fishtail anchors, as shown in Fig. 6.14a. Connection between the
infill walls and the concrete skeleton confined the walls and provided shear transfer
at the walls’ edges.
For the newly constructed walls, which were selected to participate in the lateral
load resistance of the structure, the walls were connected at its boundaries to the
concrete skeleton. Stainless steel fishtail anchors were used every other course in the
blockwork and anchored to the concrete columns, as shown in Fig. 6.14b. The last
top course was cast with grout, where the anchors were connected to the top beam
and embedded in the grout.
In a recent study to investigate the behavior of both infill and confined frames
under lateral loads (Mantawy et al. 2017), failure of the infill frames, shown in
Fig. 6.15a, occurred after separation between the wall and the concrete skeleton. The
confined walls behaved differently at failure, where no separation was observed at
the blockwork-concrete interface, as shown in Fig. 6.15b. Failure of the confined
wall was observed experimentally due to a major inclined crack passing through the
wall and the concrete element, as shown in Fig. 6.15c. The wall braced the concrete
skeleton where a strut was formed in the inclined direction with large tension forces
in the perpendicular direction causing one major crack and failure of the system.
Fig. 6.15 Infill versus confined masonry walls (Mantawy et al. 2017)
In general, the deformational behavior and ultimate carrying capacity of the

confined wall was better than that of the infill wall, as shown in Fig. 6.15d. It should be
noted that the difference between the infill and confined walls is the type of connec-
tion between the wall and the concrete skeleton, where shear transfer all along the
interface between the wall and the concrete elements should be granted.
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What are the different techniques for strengthening concrete structures discussed in the document?

What are the different techniques for strengthening concrete structures discussed in the document?

What factors are considered when selecting a strengthening technique?

What factors are considered when selecting a strengthening technique?

Amr Abdelrahman

ISBN 978-981-19-8075-6 ISBN 978-981-19-8076-3 (eBook)

1 Evaluation of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Strengthening of Concrete Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Slab Strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Dr. Amr Abdelrahman is Professor of Concrete Struc-

In general, satisfactory performance of the structure during its lifetime is an accept-

1.1 Properties of Strengthening Materials

Different materials are nominated to be used in strengthening concrete members,

1.1.1 Concrete Characteristics

f cc' = f c' + k f l (1.1)

90.0 Normal weight

0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006

Fig. 1.1 Stress–strain of concrete in compression

1.1.1.1 Time Dependent Behavior of Concrete

The time dependent behavior of concrete is dominated by the dimensional variations

where φ (t, t 0 ) is a dimensionless creep coefficient, “t o ” is the age at loading, “t” is

Fig. 1.2 Creep and shrinkage of concrete

Drying of concrete in air results in shrinkage, and if the change in volume is

εcs (t,ts ) = εcs0 βs (t − ts ) (1.3)

than in non-prestressed concrete structures because of the prestressing forces and

1.1.2 Reinforcement Characteristics

Different types of reinforcements are used to strengthen concrete members, where it

600 Non-prestressed steel

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Fig. 1.3 Idealized tensile stress–strain behavior of different reinforcements

Fig. 1.4 Different shapes of FRP reinforcement

1.1.2.1 Time Dependent Behavior of Reinforcement

1.2 Concrete Evaluation

Concrete evaluation is accomplished using different techniques starting from visual

Table 1.1 Stress limit in

1.3 Calculation of In-Situ Concrete Compressive Strength

1.3.1 Interpretation of Core Test Results

1.3.1.1 Method 1: Tolerance Factor Approach

where n is the number of cores, and f ci is the equivalent in-place strength of an

where V l/d , V dia , V mc , V d are coefficients, depending on height-to-diameter ratio,

Fig. 1.5 Variation of V l/d

Fig. 1.6 Variation of V dia

K and Z are factors depending on the required confidence level as depicted in

1.3.1.2 Method 2: Alternate Approach

Fig. 1.7 K and Z factors depending on the required confidence level

f c,eq = C( f c )CL (1.9)

Fig. 1.8 “T” factor depending on the required confidence level

Fig. 1.9 “C” factor as per

Fig. 1.11 Strength variation

Table 1.2 Core test results of

Average value = 35 MPa

Fig. 1.12 Core test results of building “A”

1.4 Structure Modeling

Three-dimensional finite element analysis of concrete structures is now customary,

Core Test Data for Columns/Walls

30 f'c by Alternate Approach = 28 MPa

Fig. 1.13 Core test results of columns and walls

Core Test Data for Slabs

Fig. 1.14 Core test results of slab ceiling