Corona discharge

The corona discharge around a high-voltage coil

The corona discharge on teeth of a metallic gear

In electricity, a corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by the ionization of a

fluid surrounding a conductor, which occurs when the potential gradient (the strength of the
electric field) exceeds a certain value, but conditions are insufficient to cause complete electrical
breakdown or arcing.

Introduction
A corona is a process by which a current, perhaps sustained, develops from an electrode with a
high potential in a neutral fluid, usually air, by ionizing that fluid so as to create a plasma around
the electrode. The ions generated eventually pass charge to nearby areas of lower potential, or
recombine to form neutral gas molecules.

When the potential gradient is large enough at a point in the fluid, the fluid at that point ionizes
and it becomes conductive. If a charged object has a sharp point, the air around that point will be
at a much higher gradient than elsewhere. Air near the electrode can become ionized (partially
conductive), while regions more distant do not. When the air near the point becomes conductive,
it has the effect of increasing the apparent size of the conductor. Since the new conductive region
is less sharp, the ionization may not extend past this local region. Outside of this region of
ionization and conductivity, the charged particles slowly find their way to an oppositely charged
object and are neutralized.

If the geometry and gradient are such that the ionized region continues to grow instead of
stopping at a certain radius, a completely conductive path may be formed, resulting in a
momentary spark, or a continuous arc.

Corona discharge usually involves two asymmetric electrodes; one highly curved (such as the tip
of a needle, or a small diameter wire) and one of low curvature (such as a plate, or the ground).
The high curvature ensures a high potential gradient around one electrode, for the generation of a
plasma.

Coronas may be positive or negative. This is determined by the polarity of the voltage on the
highly-curved electrode. If the curved electrode is positive with respect to the flat electrode we
say we have a positive corona, if negative we say we have a negative corona. (See below for
more details.) The physics of positive and negative coronas are strikingly different. This
asymmetry is a result of the great difference in mass between electrons and positively charged
ions, with only the electron having the ability to undergo a significant degree of ionising inelastic
collision at common temperatures and pressures.

An important reason for considering coronas is the production of ozone around conductors
undergoing corona processes. A negative corona generates much more ozone than the
corresponding positive corona.

Applications of corona discharge

Corona discharge has a number of commercial and industrial applications.

• drag reduction over a flat surface.

• Removal of unwanted electric charges from the surface of aircraft in flight and thus
avoiding the detrimental effect of uncontrolled electrical discharge pulses on the
performance of avionic systems
• Manufacture of ozone
• Sanitization of pool water
• Scrubbing particles from air in air-conditioning systems (see Electrostatic precipitator)
• Removal of unwanted volatile organics, such as chemical pesticides, solvents, or
chemical weapons agents, from the atmosphere
• Improve wetability or 'surface tension energy' of polymer films to improve compatibility
with adhesives or printing inks.
• Photocopying
• Air ionisers perhaps benefiting health
• Kirlian photography uses photons produced by the discharge to expose photographic
film.
• EHD thrusters, Lifters, and other ionic wind devices
• Nitrogen laser
• Surface treatment for tissue culture (polystyrene)
 • Ionization of a gaseous sample for subsequent analysis in a mass spectrometer or an ion
mobility spectrometer
• Solid-state cooling components for computer chips. (see Solid-state fan)

Coronas can be used to generate charged surfaces, which is an effect used in electrostatic
copying (photocopying). They can also be used to remove particulate matter from air streams by
first charging the air, and then passing the charged stream through a comb of alternating polarity,
to deposit the charged particles onto oppositely charged plates.

The free-radicals and ions generated in corona reactions can be used to scrub the air of certain
noxious products, through chemical reactions, and can be used to produce ozone.

Problems caused by corona discharges

Coronas can generate audible and radio-frequency noise, particularly near electric power
transmission lines. They also represent a power loss, and their action on atmospheric particulates,
along with associated ozone and NOx production, can also be disadvantageous to human health
where power lines run through built-up areas. Therefore, power transmission equipment is
designed to minimise the formation of corona discharge. Corona discharge is generally
undesirable in:

• Electric power transmission, where it causes:

o Power loss
o Audible noise
o Electromagnetic interference
o Purple glow
o Ozone production
o Insulation damage
• Inside electrical components such as transformers, capacitors, electric motors and
generators. Corona progressively damages the insulation inside these devices, leading to
premature equipment failure. One form of attack is ozone cracking of elastomer items
like O-rings.
• Situations where high voltages are in use, but ozone production is to be minimised
• Static electricity discharge
• Lightning

Mechanism of corona discharge

Corona discharge of both the positive and negative variety have certain mechanisms in common.

1. A neutral atom or molecule of the medium, in a region of strong electric field (such as the
high potential gradient near the curved electrode) is ionized by an exogenous
environmental event (for example, as the result of a photon interaction), to create a
 positive ion and a free electron.

2. The electric field then operates on these charged particles, separating them, and
preventing their recombination, and also accelerating them, imparting each of them with
kinetic energy.
3. As a result of the energisation of the electrons (which have a much higher charge/mass
ratio and so are accelerated to a higher velocity), further electron/positive-ion pairs may
be created by collision with neutral atoms. These then undergo the same separating
process creating an electron avalanche. Both positive and negative coronas rely on
 electron avalanches.

4. In processes which differ between positive and negative coronas, the energy of these
plasma processes is converted into further initial electron dissociations to seed further
avalanches.
5. An ion species created in this series of avalanches (which differs between positive and
negative coronas) is attracted to the uncurved electrode, completing the circuit, and
sustaining the current flow.
The onset voltage of corona or corona inception voltage (CIV) can be found with Peek's law
(1929), formulated from empirical observations. Later papers derived more accurate formulas.

Electrical properties
The current carried by the corona is determined by integrating the current density over the
surface of the conductor. The power loss is determined by multiplying the current and the
voltage.

Positive coronas
Properties

A positive corona is manifested as a uniform plasma across the length of a conductor. It can
often be seen glowing blue/white, though much of the emissions are in the ultraviolet. The
uniformity of the plasma owes itself to the homogeneous source of secondary avalanche
electrons described in the mechanism section, below. With the same geometry and voltages, it
appears a little smaller than the corresponding negative corona, owing to the lack of a non-
ionising plasma region between the inner and outer regions. There are many fewer free electrons
in a positive corona, when compared to a negative corona, except very close to the curved
electrode: perhaps a thousandth of the electron density, and a hundredth of the total number of
electrons.

However, the electrons in a positive corona are concentrated close to the surface of the curved
conductor, in a region of high-potential gradient (and therefore the electrons have a high energy),
whereas in a negative corona many of the electrons are in the outer, lower-field areas. Therefore,
if electrons are to be used in an application which requires a high activation energy, positive
coronas may support a greater reaction constants than corresponding negative coronas; though
the total number of electrons may be lower, the number of a very high energy electrons may be
higher.

Coronas are efficient producers of ozone in air. A positive corona generates much less ozone
than the corresponding negative corona, as the reactions which produce ozone are relatively low-
energy. Therefore, the greater number of electrons of a negative corona leads to an increased
production.

Beyond the plasma, in the unipolar region, the flow is of low-energy positive ions toward the flat
electrode.

Mechanism

As with a negative corona, a positive corona is initiated by an exogenous ionisation event in a

region of high potential gradient. The electrons resulting from the ionisation are attracted toward
the curved electrode, and the positive ions repelled from it. By undergoing inelastic collisions
closer and closer to the curved electrode, further molecules are ionized in an electron avalanche.
In a positive corona, secondary electrons, for further avalanches, are generated predominantly in
the fluid itself, in the region outside the plasma or avalanche region. They are created by
ionization caused by the photons emitted from that plasma in the various de-excitation processes
occurring within the plasma after electron collisions, the thermal energy liberated in those
collisions creating photons which are radiated into the gas. The electrons resulting from the
ionisation of a neutral gas molecule are then electrically attracted back toward the curved
electrode, attracted into the plasma, and so begins the process of creating further avalanches
inside the plasma.

As can be seen, the positive corona is divided into two regions, concentric around the sharp
electrode. The inner region contains ionising electrons, and positive ions, acting as a plasma, the
electrons avalanche in this region, creating many further ion/electron pairs. The outer region
consists almost entirely of the slowly migrating massive positive ions, moving toward the
uncurved electrode along with, close to the interface of this region, secondary electrons, liberated
by photons leaving the plasma, being re-accelerated into the plasma. The inner region is known
as the plasma region, the outer as the unipolar region.

Negative coronas
Properties

A negative corona is manifested in a non-uniform corona, varying according to the surface

features and irregularities of the curved conductor. It often appears as tufts of corona at sharp
edges, the number of tufts altering with the strength of the field. The form of negative coronas is
a result of its source of secondary avalanche electrons (see below). It appears a little larger than
the corresponding positive corona, as electrons are allowed to drift out of the ionising region, and
so the plasma continues some distance beyond it. The total number of electrons, and electron
density is much greater than in the corresponding positive corona. However, they are of a
predominantly lower energy, owing to being in a region of lower potential-gradient. Therefore,
whilst for many reactions the increased electron density will increase the reaction rate, the lower
energy of the electrons will mean that reactions which require a higher electron energy may take
place at a lower rate.

Mechanism

Negative coronas are more complex than positive coronas in construction. As with positive
coronas, the establishing of a corona begins with an exogenous ionisation event generating a
primary electron, followed by an electron avalanche.

Electrons ionised from the neutral gas are not useful in sustaining the negative corona process by
generating secondary electrons for further avalanches, as the general movement of electrons in a
negative corona is outward from the curved electrode. For negative corona, instead, the dominant
process generating secondary electrons is the photoelectric effect, from the surface of the
electrode itself. The work-function of the electrons (the energy required to liberate the electrons
from the surface) is considerably lower than the ionisation energy of air at standard temperatures
and pressures, making it a more liberal source of secondary electrons under these conditions.
Again, the source of energy for the electron-liberation is a high-energy photon from an atom
within the plasma body relaxing after excitation from an earlier collision. The use of ionised
neutral gas as a source of ionisation is further diminished in a negative corona by the high-
concentration of positive ions clustering around the curved electrode.

Under other conditions, the collision of the positive species with the curved electrode can also
cause electron liberation.

The difference, then, between positive and negative coronas, in the matter of the generation of
secondary electron avalanches, is that in a positive corona they are generated by the gas
surrounding the plasma region, the new secondary electrons travelling inward, whereas in a
negative corona they are generated by the curved electrode itself, the new secondary electrons
travelling outward.

A further feature of the structure of negative coronas is that as the electrons drift outwards, they
encounter neutral molecules and, with electronegative molecules (such as oxygen and water
vapour), combine to produce negative ions. These negative ions are then attracted to the positive
uncurved electrode, completing the 'circuit'.

A negative corona can be divided into three radial areas, around the sharp electrode. In the inner
area, high-energy electrons inelastically collide with neutral atoms and cause avalanches, whilst
outer electrons (usually of a lower energy) combine with neutral atoms to produce negative ions.
In the intermediate region, electrons combine to form negative ions, but typically have
insufficient energy to cause avalanche ionisation, but remain part of a plasma owing to the
different polarities of the species present, and the ability to partake in characteristic plasma
reactions. In the outer region, only a flow of negative ions and, to a lesser and radially-
decreasing extent, free electrons toward the positive electrode takes place. The inner two regions
are known as the corona plasma. The inner region is an ionising plasma, the middle a non-
ionising plasma. The outer region is known as the unipolar region.

Examples
Corona discharge may be seen around automotive spark plug wires that have become worn.

References
• Junhong Chen, "Direct-Current Corona Enhanced Chemical Reactions", Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Minnesota, USA. August 2002.
• F.W. Peek (1929). Dielectric Phenomena in High Voltage Engineering. McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 0-9726596-6-8. http://www.ee.vill.edu/ion/p183.html.
• Leonard Loeb (1965). Electrical Coronas Their Basic Physical Mechanisms. University
of California Press.
• James D. Cobine (1941, reprints in 1958, 1970)). Gaseous Conductors; Theory and
Engineering Applications. McGraw-Hill or Dover reprints.
External links
• Blaze Labs Research — Lots of information on corona properties & Peek's Law
• Villanova University — Modelling Corona for different electrode configurations
• Information about the differences between corona, spark, and brush discharges
• Additional information about corona, its effects, characteristics and preventative
measures
• Diagram of Ozone Formation via Corona Discharge
• Dielectric Phenomena In High Voltage Engineering

Partial discharge
In electrical engineering, a partial discharge (PD) is a localised dielectric breakdown of a small
portion of a solid or liquid electrical insulation system under high voltage stress. While a corona
discharge is usually revealed by a relatively steady glow or brush discharge in air, partial
discharges within an insulation system may or may not exhibit visible discharges, and discharge
events tend to be more sporadic in nature than corona discharges.

Discharge mechanism
PD usually begins within voids, cracks, or inclusions within a solid dielectric, at conductor-
dielectric interfaces within solid or liquid dielectrics, or in bubbles within liquid dielectrics.
Since discharges are limited to only a portion of the insulation, the discharges only partially
bridge the distance between electrodes. PD can also occur along the boundary between different
insulating materials.

Partial discharges within an insulating material are usually initiated within gas-filled voids within
the dielectric. Because the dielectric constant of the void is considerably less than the
surrounding dielectric, the electric field (and the voltage stress) appearing across the void is
significantly higher than across an equivalent distance of dielectric. If the voltage stress across
the void is increased above the corona inception voltage (CIV) for the gas within the void, then
PD activity will start within the void.

Once begun, PD causes progressive deterioration of insulating materials, ultimately leading to

electrical breakdown. PD can be prevented through careful design and material selection. In
critical high voltage equipment, the integrity of the insulation is confirmed using PD detection
equipment during the manufacturing stage as well as periodically through the equipment's useful
life. PD prevention and detection are essential to ensure reliable, long-term operation of high
voltage equipment used by electric power utilities.

Partial discharge equivalent circuit

The equivalent circuit of a dielectric incorporating a cavity can be modeled as a capacitive
voltage divider in parallel with another capacitor. The upper capacitor of the divider represents
the parallel combination of the

Partial discharge currents

When partial discharge is initiated, high frequency transient current pulses will appear and
persist for nano-seconds to a micro-second, then disappear and reappear repeatedly. PD currents
are difficult to measure because of their small magnitude and short duration. The event may be
detected as a very small change in the current drawn by the sample under test. One method of
measuring these currents is to put a small current-measuring resistor in series with the sample
and then view the generated voltage on an oscilloscope via a matched coaxial cable.

Apparent Charge

The actual charge change that occurs due to a PD event is usually not directly measurable.
Apparent charge is used instead. The apparent charge (q) of a PD event is not the actual amount
of charge changing at the PD site. Instead, it is the change in charge that, if injected between the
terminals of the device under test, would change the voltage across the terminals by an amount
equivalent to the PD event. This can be modeled by the equation:

q = CbΔ(Vc)

The apparent charge is not equal to the actual amount of changing charge at the PD site, but is
more realistic than ∆Va. 'Apparent charge' is usually expressed in picocoulombs.

Discharge detection and measuring systems

A number of discharge detection schemes have been invented since the importance of PD was
realised early in the last century. Partial discharge currents tend to be of short duration and have
rise times in the nanosecond regime. On an oscilloscope, the discharges look like randomly
occurring 'spikes' or pulses. The usual way of quantifying partial discharge magnitude is in
picocoulombs.

Calibration setup

This is measured by calibrating the voltage of the spikes against the voltages obtained from a
calibration unit discharged into the measuring instrument. The calibration unit is quite simple in
operation and merely comprises a square wave generator in series with a capacitor connected
across the sample. Usually these are triggered optically to enable calibration without entering a
dangerous high no voltage area. Calibrators are usually disconnected during the discharge
testing.
Laboratory methods

Wideband PD detection circuits

In wideband detection, the coupling impedance usually comprises a low Q parallel-resonant RLC
circuit. This circuit tends to attenuate the exciting voltage (usually between 50 and 60 Hz) and to
amplify the voltage generated due to the discharges.

Tuned (narrow band) detection circuits

Differential discharge bridge methods

Acoustic and Ultrasonic methods

Field testing methods

Clearly the field testing of plant and equipment in service by the above method, although it has
been done, is not very convenient. Therefore field testing for PD activity has taken on a slightly
different role where accuracy of measurement is less important than basic indication of discharge
activity. To this end, a number of specialised instruments have been developed by many
companies around the world.

Effects of partial discharge in insulation systems

PD are localised ionisation within electrical insulation that are caused by a high electrical field.
They occur in part of the insulation system and are limited in extent, so they do not immediately
cause full insulation breakdown.

PD can occur in a gaseous, liquid or solid insulating medium. It is often initiated within gas
voids enclosed in solid insulation, or in bubbles within a liquid insulating material, such as voids
in an epoxy insulator, or gas bubbles dissolved within transformer oil.

As the gas within the void has a dielectric constant much less than the surrounding material, it
experiences a significantly higher electric field. When this becomes high enough to cause
electrical breakdown in the gas, a partial discharge occurs. PD can also occur along the surface
of solid insulating materials if the surface tangential electric field is high enough to cause a
breakdown along the insulator surface. This phenomenon commonly manifests itself on overhead
line insulators, particularly on contaminated insulators during days of high humidity. Overhead
line insulators use air as their insulation medium.

The effects of PD within high voltage cables and equipment can be very serious, ultimately
leading to complete failure. The cumulative effect of partial discharges within solid dielectrics is
the formation of numerous, branching partially conducting discharge channels, a process called
treeing. Repetitive discharge events cause irreversible mechanical and chemical deterioration of
the insulating material. Damage is caused by the energy dissipated by high energy electrons or
ions, ultraviolet light from the discharges, ozone attacking the void walls, and cracking as the
chemical breakdown processes liberate gases at high pressure. The chemical transformation of
the dielectric also tends to increase the electrical conductivity of the dielectric material
surrounding the voids. This increases the electrical stress in the (thus far) unaffected gap region,
accelerating the breakdown process. A number of inorganic dielectrics, including glass,
porcelain, and mica, are significantly more resistant to PD damage than organic and polymer
dielectrics.

In paper-insulated high-voltage cables, partial discharges begin as small pinholes penetrating the
paper windings that are adjacent to the electrical conductor or outer sheath. As PD activity
progresses, the repetitive discharges eventually cause permanent chemical changes within the
affected paper layers and impregnating dielectric fluid. Over time, partially conducting
carbonized trees are formed. This places greater stress on the remaining insulation, leading to
further growth of the damaged region, resistive heating along the tree, and further charring
(sometimes called tracking). This eventually culminates in the complete dielectric failure of the
cable and, typically, an electrical explosion.

PD dissipate energy, generally in the form of heat, but sometimes in as sound and light as well,
like the hissing and dim glowing from the overhead line insulators. Heat energy dissipation may
cause thermal degradation of the insulation, although the level is generally low. For high voltage
equipment, the integrity of the insulation can be confirmed by monitoring the PD activities that
occur through the equipment's life. To ensure supply reliability and long-term operational
sustainability, PD in high-voltage electrical equipment should be monitored closely with early
warning signals for inspection and maintenance.

International Standards
• IEC 60270:2000/BS EN 60270:2001 "High-Voltage Test Techniques - Partial Discharge
Measurements"
• IEEE 400-2001 "IEEE Guide for Field Testing and Evaluation of the Insulation of Shielded Power
Cable Systems"
• IEEE 1434-2000 "IEEE Trial-Use Guide to the Measurement of Partial Discharges in Rotating
Machinery"

References
• High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals, E.Kuffel, W.S. Zaengl, pub. Pergamon Press. First
edition, 1992 ISBN 0-08-024213-8
• Engineering Dielectrics, Volume IIA, Electrical Properties of Solid Insulating Materials: Molecular
Structure and Electrical Behavior, R. Bartnikas, R. M Eichhorn, ASTM Special Technical
Publication 783, ASTM, 1982
• Engineering Dielectrics, Volume I, Corona Measurement and Interpretation, R. Bartnikas, E. J.
McMahon, ASTM Special Technical Publication 669, ASTM, 1979, ISBN 0-8031-0332-8

What Is Partial Discharge and Why Should

We Test For It?
Partial Discharge (PD), as its name would suggest, is an electrical discharge that occurs across a portion of the insulation between two

conducting electrodes, without completely bridging the gap.

Partial Discharges can occur in voids in solid insulation (paper, polymer etc), gas bubbles in liquid insulation or around an electrode in a gas

(corona).

Partial Discharge activity can initiate under normal working conditions in high voltage equipment where the insulation condition has

deteriorated with age and/or has been aged prematurely by thermal over-stressing.

Tracking in paper insulation

PD can also be observed, on occasion, with the commissioning of new equipment due to improper installation, poor design and/or

workmanship (this is seen particularly in cable joints and terminations which are made-up on site).

After initiation, the PD can propagate and develop into electrical trees until the insulation is so weakened that it fails completely with

breakdown to earth or between the phases of a 3-phase system.

It is known that whilst some discharges can be extremely dangerous to the health of the insulation system (e.g. discharges within polymeric

cables and accessories) other types of discharge can be relatively benign (e.g. corona into air from outdoor cable sealing ends).
Start of tracking on VMX spouts

It is necessary therefore, when testing for PD, that the Test Engineer is able to ascertain the type of discharge present and its origin.

Failure of High Voltage insulation is the No. 1 cause of HV system failures with IEEE statistics indicating that electrical insulation deterioration

causes up to 90% of electrical failures of certain high voltage equipment.

On-line PD testing of MV and HV plant gives advance warning of pending insulation failure thus allowing the plant owner to take remedial

action during planned outages.

Unlike off-line testing, on-line PD testing and monitoring gives an accurate picture of the plants health and performance under service

conditions.

Failure site in XLPE insulation, with

bow tie trees accompanied by

electrical trees

HV Plant Asset and Risk Management

PD testing is particularly important where HV plant has a high criticality. This may be due to its age, historical failures or the consequences of

its failure (position in the network).

Identification of the 'critical plant' within the plant owner's HV network can be achieved quickly and easily using HVPD's on-line PD Testing

technology to provide an 'early warning system' for incipient faults.

PD Monitoring and Trend Analysis

 On-line PD monitoring allows for analysis trends in PD activity to be observed over time. This may reveal correlation with environmental

(temperature, humidity etc) or service conditions (changes in load etc). As PD activity is often present well in advance of insulation failure it is

possible by observing its development that strategic decisions can be made about refurbishing and renewal programs.

Tracks on SOHI epoxy resin busbar

The Benefits of On-Line Partial Discharge Field

Measurements

It is truly a predictive test, indicating insulation degradation in advance of the failure.

It is a nonintrusive test, requiring no interruption of service and is performed under normal operating voltage and load.

It is a nondestructive test; it does not test to failure or adversely affect the equipment under test.

It need not use any overvoltage, thereby not exposing the tested equipment to higher voltage stresses than those encountered

under normal operating conditions.

Trending can be accomplished by storing results to allow comparison with future tests.

In many instances the site of the partial discharge occurrence can be located within the test object, so the localised problem can

be repaired.

The cost to perform a PD survey is relatively inexpensive compared with off-line testing, allowing annual surveys to be performed

economically at most facilities.

Examples of HV & MV Plant That Can Be Tested

Cables and Cable Accessories (terminations and joints)

Switchgear (AIS and GIS)

Instrument transformers (voltage and current)

Power transformers and bushings

Motors and generators


Surge arrestors

Capacitors