GRADE:12

Physics
Xavier International College

Ajay Gopali
Lecturer, Physics
 Teaching timeline
For Grade-XII
Month Chapter Teaching Periods
Ashoj Rotational dynamics 7
Periodic motion 6
Fluid statics 9
Ashoj First Terminal Examination
Kartik First Law of Thermodynamics 6
Second Law of Thermodynamics 6
Wave motion 2
Mechanical waves 4
Wave in pipes and strings 4
Acoustic phenomena 5
Interference 2
Diffraction 3
 Teaching timeline
For Grade-XII Cont…
Polarization 3
Electrical circuits 6
Thermoelectric effects 3
Magnetic field 9
Magnetic properties of materials 5
Poush Second Terminal Examination
Electromagnetic Induction 6
Alternating Currents 6
Electrons 6
Photons 3
Semiconductor devices 6
Falgun Quantization of energy 8
Radioactivity and nuclear reaction 6
Recent trends in physics 6
Baishak Pre-Board Examination
 CDC model Questions
Pattern
Time: 3 Hrs. Full Marks: 75

Attempt All Questions.

Group A
(Multiple choice questions)
Write the best alternative to the following questions. (11×1 = 11)

Group B
(Short Question answer)
Attempt the following questions: (8 × 5 = 40)

Group C
(Long Question answer)
Give long answers to the following questions: (3 × 8 = 24)
 Marks Distribution
Pattern

Rememberin
g =12 marks

Total Practical=25 marks

Practical work= 16 marks

High ability = Theory =75 Understandi

ng = 18 Viva questions= 6 marks
24 marks marks
Marks
Classroom participation= 3
marks

Applying = 21
Marks
 Learning Methods

• Theoretical Class Practical Class

 Class teaching  Observation
 Demonstration
 Demonstration
 Viva
 Questionnaires  lab participation
 Test
Class works and homework
Class participation
Continuous Assessment
Evaluation
 Physics

Physics: The word comes from Greek meaning “Nature”

 Physics is the branch of science in which we study the basic law of nature and
manifestation of diverse natural phenomena.

 A science that deals with matter and energy with their interaction in the field of
mechanics, optics, Nuclear physics, Heat, Electricity, atomics structure etc is called
Physics.

Father of Science: Albert Einstein

 Branch of Physics

1. Mechanics:
Study about motion of an object and its cause and effect.
2. Quantum:
Study about atoms and sub atoms.
3. Fluid Mechanics:
Study of fluids, either liquid and gas.
4. Electronics:
Study of flow of electrons.
5. Thermodynamics:
Study of nature of heat, model of transfer and effect of heat.
 Branch of Physics cont…

6. Geometric optics:
Study of physical aspect of light.
7. Astrophysics:
Study about celestial objects and phenomena like: star, galaxies, universe.
8. Biomedical Physics:
Science of human health and radiation exposure.
9. Modern Physics:
Study of the relativity and quantum mechanics
10. Electricity and magnetism:
Study of charges at rest and motion, their effects and their relationship with
magnetism
 Branch of Physics cont…

11. Geo Physics:

Study of internal structure of the earth.
12. Plasma Physics:
Study of production properties of ionic state of matter.
13. Nuclear Physics:
Study of properties and behavior of nuclei and particles.
14. Solid state physics:
Study of rigid matter or solid.
15. Relativistic Physics:
Study of Special relativity, general relativity, Mathematical Physics
Etc.
 Chapter-1 Rotational Dynamics
Teaching period= 7
Key Points
1.1 Equation of Angular Motion 1.6 Work and Power in Rotational
1.1.1 Relation between linear and angular kinematics. Motion
1.2 Kinetic Energy of Rotation of Rigid Body 1.7 Angular Momentum
1.3 Moment of Inertia 1.7.1 Relation between Angular Mom-
1.3.1 Radius of Gyration -mentum and moment of inertia
1.3.2 Theorem of parallel and perpendicular 1.7.2 Relation between Angular
1.4 Calculation of moment of Inertia of Rigid Bodies Momentum and torque
1.7.3 Principle of Conservation of
1.4.1 thin uniform Rod
Angular Momentum
1.4.2 Moment of inertia of a circular Ring
1.4.3 Mom Moment of Inertia of a circular Disc
1.5 Torque and angular Acceleration
 Rotational Dynamics

Rigid body  A solid body, in which the particles are compactly arranged so that the inter-
particle distance is small and fixed, and their positions are not disturbed by any
eternal forces applied.
 There is no such things as an ideally rigid body
 A rigid body may either move bodily i.e. as a whole in any direction or rotate in
two or three dimensions
Translation Motion  Bodies move from one place to another position.
 Every particle suffers the same displacement.
for. Ex. The motion of the bus
Rotational Motion  When its particles generate concentric circles with same angular velocity but
linear velocity.
 The rotation of a rigid body from a fixed line called axis of rotation.
for ex. Motion of a wheel of a bus.
 1.1 Equation of Angular Motion

When a rigid body rotates about an axis. Its position is described with angular
displacement 𝜃 and each particle of body has a linear displacement s, the
. relation the two displacements is s = 𝜃r .
If the angular displacement is d𝜃 at small time
interval dt then,
𝑑𝜃
ω=
𝑑𝑡
S
𝑑ω
and angular acceleration α =
𝜃 𝑑𝑡
 The particle has linear velocity v which is
tangent along the circular path. So,
𝑑𝑠 𝑑(𝜃r) 𝑑𝜃
v= = = r = rω
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑ω
And linear acceleration a= = r =rα
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1.1.1 Relation between linear and
angular kinematics
 1.2 Kinetic energy of Rotation of Rigid
body
A rigid body of mass M and an angular velocity ω. Let the body be made up of a large
number of particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 ……….. 𝑚𝑛 which are situated at distances
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3, … … … … 𝑟𝑛 from y-axis. Since all the masses have same angular velocity.
So, The rotational kinetic energy is equal to half the product of the moment of inertia of the
body and the square of the angular velocity of the body about the given axis.
 Kinetic energy of a rolling body
Consider a body of mass m and radius R rolling along a straight line of a horizontal
line with out slipping as in fig.
Let v be the velocity of the Centre of mass and T is the time period of rotation
of the body. Total distance covered by the body is x at an angle 2π (one
revolution).
2π
The angular velocity of the body is ω =
T
2πR
and velocity of translation of its center of mass V= Rω =
T

1
∴ Kinetic energy of rotation, Er = Iω2
2
1
and Kinetic energy of translation , Et = m𝑣 2
2

The Total K.E of the rolling body is given by

E= Er + Et
Hence, total kinetic energy is the sum of rotational energy and translational energy.
 Acceleration of a Rolling Body on
an inclined Plane
Consider a solid object (sphere) of radius R and mass m rolling down a plane
inclined at an angle 𝜃 to the horizontal figure. The height of the inclined plane is h
and the distance is s. If the object rolls down from the highest point of the inclined
plane then at that time the total energy is
potential energy = mgh …………. (1)
In this motion the object does the rotational motion about an axis passing
through the center of mass as well as the translatory motion along the plane

ω
 Thus, Rolling motion = Translatory motion + Rotatory motion.
At the bottom of the plane , its velocity becomes v and angular
velocity ω, means lost in P.E= gained in K.E
Total energy at bottom = Translatory kinetic energy +
rotational energy
1 1
= Iω2 + m𝑣 2 Hence, by the law of
2 2
conservation of energy

𝟐𝒈𝒉
V= 𝑲𝟐
( 𝟐 +𝟏)
𝑹
 This is the representation of the velocity of a body at an
inclined plane. If the initial velocity of the body is zero (u =
0) then by the equation of motion.

This is the formula for acceleration of a body on an inclined

If the objects of various shapes are rolled down an inclined plane then the object whose K 2 /
R2 is minimum, its value of velocity and acceleration will be maximum when it reaches the
end; and it will reach first at the bottom; the object whose K 2 / R2 value is maximum will
take maximum time to reach the bottom.
While rolling from top to bottom in inclined plane for, solid sphere, disc, spherical shell and
ring.
1st –solid sphere
2nd –disc
3rd –spherical shell
4th - Ring
 1.3 Moment of Inertia
 The inertness or inability of a body to change its
state of rest or uniform motion by itself is called inertia.
 For a given force, the greater the mass the higher will be the inertia and
vice versa.
 Define as the sum of the products of the masses of the various particles of
the body and the squares of their respective distances from the axis.
 The rotational motion of a body is called rotational inertia.

In the expressions for torque and angular momentum for rigid bodies (which are considered as bulk
objects), we have come across a term Σmi ri2. This quantity is called moment of inertia (I) of the bulk
object. For point mass mi at a distance ri from the fixed axis, the moment of inertia is given as, mi ri2.
Moment of inertia for point mass,
I= 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
Moment of inertia for bulk object,
I= 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
Inertia (I) = MK2

Radius of Gyration
 Radius of gyration is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation to a point
where the total mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated, so that
the moment of inertia about the axis may remain the same.
 Gyration is the distribution of the components of an object.
 It is denoted by K. In terms of radius of gyration, the moment of inertia of the
body of mass M is given as
Inertia I = M K 2

Suppose a body consists of n particles each of mass m. Let r1, r2, r3, … , rn be
their perpendicular distances from the axis of rotation. Then, the moment of
inertia I of the body about the axis of rotation is

If all the particles are of same mass m, then

 Since mn = M, total mass of the body,

And from above relation,

 Radius of Gyration of a thin Rod
 The moment of inertia of uniform thin rod of
mass M and length l about an axis through its center and
perpendicular to its length is given by
𝑀𝑙 2
I= … … … . (1)
12
If K is the radius of gyration of rod about the axis then I = MK 2 ………(2)
2 𝑀𝑙 2
From eqn (1) and (2) and MK =
12
l
so, K=
12
Radius of Gyration of a Solid Sphere
 The moment of inertia of Solid sphere of mass M and radius R is given by
2
I = 𝑀𝑅2 … … … . (3)
5
If K is the radius of gyration of Solid Sphere, then, I = MK 2 …………….(4)
2
From eqn (3) and (4) and MK 2 = 𝑀𝑅2
5

2
so, K= R
5
 1.3.2 Theorem of parallel Axes
Statement: The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to
the sum of its moment of inertia about a parallel axis through its centre
of mass and the product of the mass of the body and the square of the
distance between
the two axes
i.e. I= Md2 + Icm
Proof,
Suppose DE be the axis about which the moment of
inertia of a body is to be calculated and AB is
another axis passing through the centre of mass O,
which is parallel to DE and d is the perpendicular
distance between the axis DE and AB as in Fig.
Consider a particle of mass m at any point P at
distance x from AB.
 The moment of inertia of the whole body about the axis
DE =
I = Σ m(x+d)2 …….(1)
=Σmx2 + Σ2mxd + Σmd2
Since Icm = Σmx2 the moment of inertia of the body about
the axis AB, so
I = Icm + Σ2mxd + Σmd2
Similarly, Σmd2 = mΣd2 =Md2 , Where M is the mass of
the whole body
Σmx= the sum of the moment of all the particles of the
body about the axis AB passing through its centre of mass
therefore, equal to zero. i.e. Σmx= 0
I= Md2 + Icm
That is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis DE is the sum of its moment of
inertia about a parallel axis AB through its centre of mass and the product of mass of
the body and square the distance between the two axes.
 1.3.2 Theorem of parallel Axes
Statement: The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to
the sum of its moment of inertia about a parallel axis through its centre
of gravity (mass) and the product of the mass of the body and the
square of the distance between
the two axes
i.e. I= Mx2 + IG
Proof,
Let us consider a body having its centre of
gravity (mass) at G as shown in Fig.. The axis
XX′ passes through the centre of gravity
(mass) and is perpendicular to the plane of the
body. The axis X1X1′ passes through the point
O and is parallel to the axis XX′ . The
distance between the two parallel axes is x
 Let the body be divided into large number of particles
each of mass m . For a particle P at a distance r from O, its
moment of inertia about the axis X1OX1′ is equal to m r 2.

The moment of inertia of the whole body about the axis

X1X1′ is given by,
I = Σ mr2 …….(1)
From the point P, drop a perpendicular PA to the extended
OG and join PG.
In the ∆OPA,
OP 2 = OA2 + AP 2
r2 = x2 + 2xh + h2 + AP2 ….(2)
But from ∆ GPA,
GP 2 = GA2 + AP 2
y 2 = h 2 + AP 2 ..(3)
Substituting equation (3) in (2),
r 2 = x 2 + 2xh + y 2 ..(4)
Substituting equation (4) in (1),
I = Σ m (x2 + 2xh + y2)
= Σmx2 + Σ2mxh + Σmy2
= Mx2 + My2 + 2xΣmh
Here My2 = IG is the moment of inertia of the body about the line passing
through the centre of gravity.
The sum of the turning moments of all the particles about the centre of gravity
is zero, since the body is balanced about the centre of gravity G.

Σ (mg) (h) = 0 (or) Σ mh = 0 [since g is a constant]

equation (5) becomes, I0= Mx2 + IG
Thus the parallel axes theorem is proved.
 Perpendicular axes theorem

Statement: The moment of inertia of a plane laminar body about an

axis perpendicular to the plane is equal to the sum of the moments of
inertia about two mutually perpendicular axes in the plane of the lamina
such that the three mutually perpendicular axes have a common point
of intersection
i.e. Iz = Ix+ Iy
Proof,
Consider a plane lamina having the
axes OX and OY in the plane of the lamina as
shown Fig. The axis OZ passes through O and
is perpendicular to the plane of the lamina.
Let the lamina be divided into a large number
of particles, each of mass m. A particle at P at
a distance r from O has coordinates (x,y).
∴r2 = x2+y2
The moment of inertia of the particle P about the axis OZ = m r2. The
moment of inertia of the whole lamina about the axis OZ is
I Z= Σmr2 …….. (2)
The moment of inertia of the whole lamina about the axis OX is
Ix =Σ my 2
Similarly, I y= Σ mx 2
From eqn. (2), I = Σ mr2 = Σ m(x2+y2)
I = Σmx2+ Σ my2 = Ix+ Iy
Iz = I x+ Iy
which proves the perpendicular axes theorem
 Calculation of Moment of Inertia of Rigid Bodies
When an object consists of a continuous distribution of
mass, its moment of inertia can be calculated by
integrating the moment of inertia of its small part. If dm
small mass, r is the perpendicular distance of the particle
I= r2 dm
1.4.1 Thin uniform Rod
Consider a thin rod of mass ‘M’ and length ‘L’ such that
its linear density λ is M/L. Depending on the position of
the axis of rotation, the rod illustrates two moments:
 about an axis through its center and perpendicular to
its length
 an axis passing through one end and perpendicular to
its length.
 About an axis through its center and perpendicular
to its length

Similar to the infinitesimal element of mass dm, consider an infinitesimal element of

length dl corresponding to it. Drawing the origin at the center of mass resting on the line of the axis,
we realize that the distance of the rod to the left from the origin to its end is -L/2, while the distance
from the origin to the other end to its right is +L/2.

since the rod is uniform and linear density is constant

Because the variable of integration is now length (dl), the limits have
changed from the previously depicted M to a required fraction of
L.
 b) About an axis passing through one end and perpendicular to its length
According to the theorem of parallell axis, the moment of inertia of the rod about an axis at the
end of the rod and perpendicular to it is.
I= Icm + Mr 2
𝑀𝑙 2 𝑙
And we have Icm = and r=
12 2
𝑀𝑙 2 𝑙 𝑀𝑙 2 𝑀𝑙 2
I= +M ( )2 = +
12 2 12 2
𝑀𝑙 2
I =
3
 1.4.2 Moment of Inertia of a Circular Ring
Let us consider a uniform ring of mass M and radius R. To find the
moment of inertia of the ring about an axis passing through its center
and perpendicular to the plane, let us take an infinitesimally small mass
(dm) of length (dx) of the ring. This (dm) is located at a distance R,
which is the radius of the ring from the axis as shown in Figure 5.22

The momen of inertia (dI) of this small mass (dm) is,

dI = (dm) R2
The length of the ring is its circumference ( 2πR). As the mass is
uniformly distributed, the mass per unit length (λ) is
mass M
λ= =
length 2πR
The mass (dm) of the infinitesimally small length is
M
dm = λ dx = dx
2πR
 Now, the moment of inertia (I) of the entire ring is

To cover the entire length of the ring, the limits of integration are taken from o to 2πR
 1.4.3 Moment of Inertia of a Circular Disc

Consider a disc of mass M and radius R. This disc is made up of many infinitesimally small rings as
shown in figure. Consider one such ring of mass (dm) and thickness (dr) and radius (r). The moment
of inertia (dl) of this small ring is,
dl = (dm) r 2
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
As the mass is uniformly distributed, the mass per unit area (σ) is σ = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 π𝑅 2
The mass of the infinitesimally small ring is,
𝑀
dm = σ 2πr dr = 2πr dr
π𝑅 2
where, the term (2πr dr) is the area of this elemental ring (2πr is the length and dr is the thickness),
2𝑀
dm = 𝑟 3 dr
𝑅2
The moment of inertia (I) of the entire disc is’
 Problems

1. A uniform disc of mass 100g has a diameter of 10 cm. Calculate the total energy of the disc when rolling
along a horizontal table with a velocity of 20 cms-1. (take the surface of table as reference)
Answer
Mass of the disc m = 100 g = 0.1 kg.
Diameter of the disc d = 10 cm
Radius of the disc r = 5 cm = 0.05m
Rolling with a velocity v = 20 cms-1 = 0.20 ms-1
Total energy of the disc ETot = ?
ETot = Translational K.E. + rotational K.E.
Moment of inertia (M.I) of the disc about its own axis
1 2 2 v2
Translational K,.E = 2 m𝑣 and we know that v= rω ω = r2
1 2 m𝑟 2
and rotational K.E= Iω , since moment of inertia of the disc is
2 2
1 m𝑟 2 v 1 2
= ×( )×( 2 ) = m𝑣 2
2 2 r 4
Now,
ETot = Translational K.E. + rotational K.E.

1 1
= 2 m𝑣 2 + m𝑣 2
4
3
= 4 m𝑣 2
3
T.E of the disc ETot = ×0.1×(0.2)2
4
=0.003 J
Hence , the total energy of the rolling body having mass 100gm in a horizontal surface is 0.003J
 Torque

Example of torque
 1.5 Torque and angular Acceleration for
a rigid body
Torque
 The turning effect of a force in a body is called torque or moment of force.
Torque (Ʈ) = Force × perpendicular distance of the force from the axis of rotation.
 or, Ʈ = r × F
 Torque is a vector quantity
Ʈ =𝑟 × 𝐹
 Its unit is dyne cm in CGS system and Nm in SI system
 In dimensional formula [ML2 T −2 ]
1.5 Torque and Moment of inertia
 1.6 Work and Power in Rotational Motion

Let us consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis. Figure 5.29 shows a
point P on the body rotating about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
page. A tangential force F is applied on the body.
It produces a small displacement ds on the body. The work done (dw) by
the force is

.
dw = Fds
As the distance ds, the angle of rotation dθ and radius r are related by the
expression,
ds = rdθ
The expression for work done now becomes,
dw = F ds; dw = F r dθ
The term (Fr) is the torque τ produced by the force on the body.
dw = τdθ
This expression gives the work done by the external torque τ, which acts on the
body rotating about a fixed axis through an angle dθ.
The corresponding expression for work done in translational motion is,
dw = Fds
 Power delivered is the work done per unit time. If
we differentiate the expression for

The analogous expression for instantaneous power delivered in translational motion is

 1.7.2 Relation between Angular Momentum and
Torque

 The angular momentum of a rotating rigid body is, L =

Iω
Differentiating the above equation with respect to time,
𝑑𝐿 𝑑ω
= I ( ) = Ia
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ω
where α = angular acceleration of the body.
𝑑𝑡
But torque τ = Iα
𝑑𝐿
Therefore, torque τ =
𝑑𝑡

Thus the rate of change of angular momentum of a body is

equal to the external torque acting upon the body
 1.7.3 Principle of Conservation of Angular
Momentum
If no external torque acts on a system, the total angular momentum of the
remains conserved. i.e.
I ω = constant

The angular momentum of a rotating rigid body is, L = I ω

dL
The torque acting on a rigid body is, τ =
dt
dL
When no external torque acts on the system, τ = = 0
dt
(i.e) L = I ω = constant

Total angular momentum of the body = constant

and I1 ω 1 = I2 ω 2
(i.e.) when no external torque acts on the body, the net angular momentum of a rotating rigid
body remains constant. This is known as law of conservation of angular momentum
 Illustration of conservation of angular
momentum

From the law of conservation of angular momentum, I ω = constant

1
(i.e.) ω ∝ , the angular velocity of rotation is inversely proportional
𝑙α
to the moment of inertia of the system.

Following are the examples for law of conservation of angular

momentum.

1. A diver jumping from springboard sometimes exhibits somersaults in

air before reaching the water surface, because the diver curls his body to
decrease the moment of inertia and increase angular velocity. When he is
about to reach the water surface, he again outstretches his limbs. This again
increases moment of inertia and decreases the angular velocity. Hence, the
diver enters the water surface with a gentle speed
.
 2. A ballet dancer can increase her angular velocity by folding her arms, as this decreases the
moment of inertia.
3. Fig. a shows a person sitting on a turntable holding a pair of heavy dumbbells one in each
hand with arms outstretched. The table is rotating with a certain angular velocity. The person
suddenly pushes the weight towards his chest as shown Fig. b, the speed of rotation is found to
increase considerably.

4.The angular velocity of a planet in its orbit round the sun increases when it is nearer to the
Sun, as the moment of inertia of the planet about the Sun decreases.

.
2. A fly wheel rotates with a uniform angular acceleration. If its angular velocity increases
from 20π rad/s to 40π rad/s in 10 seconds. Find the number of rotations in that period.
Answer:
Initial Angular Velocity ω0 = 20π rad s-1
Final Angular velocity ω = 40 π rad s-1
time taken, t = 10 s
No. of rotations / s = ?
3. A solid sphere of mass 20 kg and radius 0.25 m rotates about an axis passing through the center.
What is the angular momentum if the angular velocity is 5 rad s-1
Solution:
Mass of the sphere, m = 20 kg
Radius r = 0.25 m
Angular velocity ω = 5 rad s-1
Solution:
Angular momentum L = Iω = 2/5 m𝑟 2 ω
=2/5 × 20 (0.25)2 × 5
L = 2.5 kg 𝑚2 s-1
A disc of moment of inertia 5 × 10−4 kg m2 is rotating freely about the axis through its centre at 40 rpm.
Calculate the new revolution per minute if some wax of mass 0.02 kg dropped gently on to the disc 0.08 m
from the axis.
Solution
Here,
Initial moment of inertia, I1 = 5 × 10−4 kg m2
Initial frequency, f1 = 40rpm
Mass of wax dropped, m = 0.02 kg
Distance of dropped wax from the axis, r = 0.08 m
New frequency, 𝑓2 = ?
Now, I2 = I1 + mr 2
= 5 × 10−4 + 0.02 × (0.08)2 ∣ kgm2
= 5 × 10−4 + 1.28 × 10−4 kgm2
= 6.28 × 10−4 kgm2
,
By the principle of conservation of angular momentum,
I2 𝜔2 = I1 𝜔1
I2 2𝜋f2 = I1 2𝜋f1
I1 f1 5 × 10−4 × 40
f2 = =
I2 6.28 × 10−4
200
= rpm = 32rpm
6.28
Hence, new frequency of revolution of the disc per minute is 32.