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First Edition
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Technology And Employment Skills Training

Ministry of Education
10th August, 2017
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This text book has been written for the new Year 13 Technical Drawing syllabus to be trialed in Fiji
secondary schools from this year, 2018. It is the first edition of the Year 13 Technical Drawing resource
material.

It is designed to introduce students to the advanced techniques of technical drawing, graphics and
design.

Since this is the first edition and first trial, suggestion for amendments will be welcomed.

It is hoped this text book will be relevant for all Technical Drawing students in secondary schools and
that it provides them the opportunity to pursue further in this field.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION,
SUVA.
10th August, 2017.
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This textbook for Year 13 Technical Drawing has been produced by the Industrial Arts Section of the
Technology and Employment Skills Training Section of the Ministry of Education.

It has been written and compiled by the Year 13 text book writer comprising of the following
Industrial Arts teacher:

1. Mr. Mohammed Hasnain - Saraswati College, Nausori.

This publication has been made possible through the support and assistance provided by the
Industrial Arts Senior Education Officer; Mr. Pene Aropio with guidance from the Principal
Education Officer, TEST; Mrs. Makelesi Driu and other Senior Staff of The Ministry of Education.

A special thanks goes to Mr. Krishneel Sen for his assistance rendered towards the writing of this
textbook.

Above all the TEST staff and the family members of the writers are thanked for their patience and
wholehearted support.

Every effort has been made to acknowledge all copyright.

Copyright © 15th January 2018

Technology and Employment Skills Training
Ministry of Education, Fiji.
All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the permission of the
Technology and Employment Skills
Training Section of the Ministry
of Education,
Fiji.
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TOPIC PAGE NO.

Preface……………………………………………………………….……………………. 3
Acknowledgement……….....…………………………………………………………….. 4
CHAPTER 1: GEOMETRY…………………………………………………………… 6
Plane and Space Geometry………….……………………………………………………. 6–7
Laminae……………………….………………………………….……………………….. 7 – 11
Helical Springs………………………………………………….………………………… 11 – 15
Helical Square Threads..……………………………………….…………………………. 16 – 18
Centroids………………………………………………………………………………….. 18 – 20
Development by Triangulation…..…..…………………………………………………… 20 – 23
Logarithmic Spiral & Construction.…………..……………………….…………………. 23 – 25
Conic Sections…..……………………………………………………….……………….. 25
Evolute of an Ellipse……………………………………………………………………… 25 – 26
Evolute of a Parabola……………………..………………………………………………. 26
Evolute of a Hyperbola…………………….…………………………….……………….. 26
Interpenetration………………..……………………………….………….……………… 27 – 29
Cams…………………………………………………………..…………….……………. 29 – 32
Rolling Wheels……….……………………………………………………….………….. 32 – 34
Traces………..………………………………………………………………….………… 35 – 39
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN & ENTERPPRISING……………………………….………. 40
Presentation and Marketing….……………………………………………..…………….. 40 – 42
Basics In Writing a Business Plan..………………………………………….…………… 42 – 49
Research: Working and Forming of Non-metals..……………………..…………………. 49
Research: Mineral Resources in Fiji..…..…………………………..…………………….. 50
CHAPTER 3: APPLIED DRAWING.………………………………………………… 51
Simple Electric Circuits……………..……………………………………………………. 51 – 54
Solar Powered Systems………………………………..………………………………….. 55 – 58
Hydropower…………………….………………………………………………………… 58 – 60
Engineering Drawing..……………………………………………………………………. 60 – 61
Pictorial Projection: Isometric.………………..………………………………………….. 62 – 69
CHAPTER 4: APPLIED MECHANICS……………………………………………… 70
Trusses…………..………………………..………………………………………………. 70 – 75
CHAPTER 5: SURVEYING & NAVIGATION……………………………………… 76 – 86
Course Plotting……………………………………………………………………………. 86 – 89
Surveying…………………...…………………………………………………………….. 89 – 92
Methods of Leveling……………………………………………………………………… 92 – 102
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………… 103
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CHAPTER 1: GEOMETRY
Plane and Space Geometry
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this chapter, students will:

• define skew lines and dihedral angle.

• find the true lengths of skew lines.
• construct the edge view of intersecting planes.
• find the dihedral angle between two intersecting planes.

Introduction
Two lines are called skew lines if they are neither parallel nor intersecting. In many practical areas of
engineering, the shortest level distance between skew lines or the shortest perpendicular distances between
skew lines, is often required. For example, in pipework, mining, structural frames etc., it is often necessary
to connect two skew pipes with another new pipe; two mining shafts with another new tunnel; or two skew
members of a frame with another new member. In cases like these it is of great advantage to know the
shortest horizontal distance, or the shortest perpendicular distance, between the two elements. If we
produce a plane that contains one of the lines and has an edge that is parallel to the other line, then an edge
view of that plane will show both lines as parallel.

Example 1:
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METHOD:

(1) Draw the plane to contain AB and be parallel to CD. Draw a level line from A in the elevation. From B
draw a line parallel to the other skew line CD. These two lines intersect at O. This completes the plane
in elevation.
(2) Drop O to plan.
(3) From B in plan draw a line parallel to CD in plan. This line intersects the line dropped from O in
elevation to give point O in plan.
(4) Join O back to A thus completing the plan of the plane.
(5) An auxiliary elevation viewing along AO will show both lines as parallel.
(6) Project a second auxiliary plan by projecting horizontally, i.e. parallel to the X 1 Y 1 . Both lines appear
to cross. Where they appear to cross is the location of the shortest horizontal line.
(7) Project the line back through the views as shown.

LAMINAE
Line of Intersection and Dihedral Angles for Triangular Lamina

When given the coordinates of meshing lamina it is often necessary to find the line of intersection between
the planes and hence find the dihedral angle between the planes. There are three possible ways this
problem can be presented:

Given the Line of Intersection

Figure 9.78
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Given One Point on the Line of Intersection

Point A is a shared point and therefore must be on the line of intersection.

(1) Draw a horizontal cutting plane in elevation to cut both planes. In Fig. 9.79 this cutting plane gives
points 1 and 2 on plane ABC and points D and 3 on plane ADE.
(2) Find these points on the plan giving lines 1, 2 and D3. Where these two lines cross is a point on the
line of intersection, i.e. a shared point. Thus find the line of intersection Ai on the plan and elevation.
The line of intersection must stop when it hits the edge of a plane. The dihedral angle follows as
before.

Figure 9.79
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Given no point on the line of intersection

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This method is the same as in the previous example except that two separate horizontal cutting planes are
used. These horizontal cutting planes can be drawn at any level as long as they cut both planes.

Note 1: Line E3 on the plan will be parallel to line 4, 5. Also line 1, 2 will be parallel to line C6 in the
plan.
Note 2: If the lines do not intersect they are extended until they do intersect.

Worked Example 1:
Given: The partial plan and front elevation of a hip roof.

Problem: Determine the dihedral

angle between planes A and B.

Solution:
Locate a point on plane B, such as D.
The two planes involved are ABC
and ABD. Draw auxiliary elevation
view 1 showing both planes and
having the line of intersection AB
shown in its true length: Draw
inclined view 2 showing the line of
intersection as a point and the planes
as edges. The angle between the two
edge views is the dihedral angle.

Ans. Dihedral Angle is 119° 30'

Worked Example 2:
It is desired to find the
dihedral angle between
the two given planes,
ABD and ACD, having
the line of intersection of
the two planes given. An
auxiliary elevation view is
drawn showing the line of
intersection AD in its true
length. The inclined view
2 is then drawn to show
the line of intersection as
a point. This view also
shows the two given
planes as edges. The
dihedral angle is
measured between the two
edge views. Since inclined
view 2 shows the edge
views of both planes, an
additional view projected
from each edge view will
show the true size of each
plane. Inclined view 3
shows the true size of plane ACD.
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Line of Intersection Not Given

Analysis: If both planes can be seen as edges in the same view the dihedral angle can be measured
between the two edge views.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define the term dihedral angle. (1 mark)

2. Write down the steps in finding the dihedral angle between two intersecting (5marks)
planes.
3. Define skew lines. (1 mark)

Helical Springs - Round and Square

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will:
• define and provide examples of helix, pitch, lead.
• discuss the application of helical curves.
• construct helical springs - round and square.
• construct helical square threads including single-start and
multi-start.

Introduction
A helical spring, also known as a coil spring, is a mechanical device,
which is typically used to store energy and subsequently release it to
absorb shock, maintain a force between contacting surfaces.
They are made of an elastic material into the shape of a helix which
returns to its natural length when loaded.

Helical Spring
A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when loaded
and to recover its original shape when the load is removed. The helical springs
are made up of a wire coiled in the form of a helix and are primarily intended
for compressive or tensile loads. The cross-section of the wire from which the
spring is made may be circular, square or rectangular. Helical compression
springs have applications to resist applied compression forces or in the push
mode, store energy to provide the ‘push’. Different forms of compression
springs are produced.

The helical springs are said to be closely coiled when the spring wire is coiled so close that the plane
containing each turn is nearly at right angles to the axis of the helix and the wire is subjected to torsion. In
other words, in a closely coiled helical spring, the helix angle is very small, it is usually less than 10
degrees. The major stresses produced in helical springs are shear stresses due to twisting. The load applied
is parallel to or along the axis of the spring. In open coiled helical springs, the spring wire is coiled in such
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a way that there is a gap between the two consecutive turns, as a result of which the helix angle is large.

Helix
Helix is a space curve drawn by a point moving in helical motion about its axis. The distance between this
point and the axis is called the radius of helix. Helical motion is the resultant motion of a point which
moves with two velocities. The first is circular and the other is axial. The axial distance which needs one
complete circulation is called the pitch P of helix. The helix can be drawn by dividing the circle and the
pitch P of the helix. The helix can be drawn by dividing the circle and the pitch into the same number of
parts as shown in the figure below.

Right Hand Helix Terms used in Compression Springs

A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when loaded and to recover its original
shape when the load is removed. The various important applications of springs are as follows:

1. To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in car springs, railway buffers,
air-craft landing gears, shock absorbers and vibration dampers.
2. To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring-loaded valves.
3. To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in cams and followers.
4. To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine indicators.
5. To store energy, as in watches, toys, etc.
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The following terms are used in connection with the compression spring.

When the compression spring is

compressed until the coils come in
contact with each other, then the
spring is said to be solid. The solid
length of the spring is the product of
the total number of coils and the
diameter of the wire.

Free length (Lo)

The free length of a compression

spring is the length of the spring in
the free or unloaded condition.

Load (P): The force applied to a

spring that causes a deflection.
Deflection: Motion of spring ends or
legs under the application or removal of an external load (P).
Wire Diameter (d): The diameter of the wire that is wound into a helix.

Construction of Square Section Spring

Right-hand cylindrical helix will be projected as a straight line. The angle

between the helix and a line drawn parallel with the base is known as the
helix angle.
Note: If the numbering in the plan view is taken in the clockwise direction
from point 1, then the projection in the front elevation will give a left-hand
helix.

The construction for a helix is shown applied to a right-hand helical spring in

the Figure. The spring is of square cross-section, and the four helices are
drawn from the two outside corners and the two corners at the inside
diameter. The pitch of the spring is divided into 12 equal parts, to correspond
with the 12 equal divisions of the circle in the end elevation, although only
half of the circle need be drawn. Points are plotted as previously shown.
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Construction of Square Section Spring – Example

Step 1: Draw half plan and full elevation of a cylinder with a square section for the spring.
Step 2: Divide half plan and full elevation (pitch/ lead) into 12 equal parts.
Step 3: Project the 12 generators to intersect corresponding twelve divisions of the lead.
Step 4: the four helices are drawn from the two outside corners and the two corners at the inside diameter.

STEP 1 STEP 2

STEP 3

STEP 4
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Construction of a Circular Section Right Hand Helical Spring

Step 1: Draw half plan and full elevation of a cylinder with a circular section for the spring.
Step 2: Divide half plan and full elevation (pitch/ lead) into 12 equal parts.
Step 3: Project the 12 generators to intersect corresponding twelve divisions of the lead.

Step 4: Draw circular sections at points located in step 3.

Step 5: The locus of the helical curve is drawn tangential to the circles.
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Helical Square Threads - Single-start and Two-start

A screw thread, often simplified to thread, is a helical
structure used to convert between rotational and linear
movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge wrapped
around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the
former being called a straight thread and the latter called
a tapered thread. A screw thread is the essential feature of
the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener.
The mechanical advantage of a screw thread depends on
its lead, which is the linear distance the screw travels in one
revolution. In most applications, the lead of a screw thread
is chosen so that friction is sufficient to prevent linear
motion being converted to rotary that is so the screw does
not slip even when linear force is applied so long as no
external rotational force is present. This characteristic is
essential to the vast majority of its uses. The tightening of a
fastener's screw thread is comparable to driving a wedge
into a gap until it sticks fast through friction and
slight plastic deformation.

Screw Threads have Several Applications:

Fastening
Fasteners such as wood screws, machine screws, nuts and bolts.
Connecting threaded pipes and hoses to each other and to caps and fixtures.

Gear reduction via worm drives

Moving objects linearly by converting rotary motion to linear motion, as in the lead screw of a jack.
Measuring by correlating linear motion to rotary motion (and simultaneously amplifying it), as in
a micrometer.
Both moving objects linearly and simultaneously measuring the movement, combining the two
aforementioned functions, as in a lead screw of a lathe.

In all of these applications, the screw thread has two main

functions:
It converts rotary motion into linear motion.
It prevents linear motion without the corresponding rotation.

Handedness

Right and Left-handed Screw Threads

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The Right-hand Rule of Screw Threads

The helix of a thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known as handedness. Most threads are
oriented so that the threaded item, when seen from a point of view on the axis through the center of the
helix, moves away from the viewer when it is turned in a clockwise direction, and moves towards the
viewer when it is turned counterclockwise. This is known as a right-handed (RH) thread, because it
follows the right hand grip rule. Threads oriented in the opposite direction are known as left-handed (LH).

Screw Thread Terminology

The common terms and definitions below are used in screw thread work and will be used in discussing
threads and thread cutting.
External or male thread is a thread on the outside of a cylinder or cone.
Internal or female thread is a thread on the inside of a hollow cylinder or bore.
Pitch is the distance from a given point on one thread to a similar point on a thread next to it, measured
parallel to the axis of the cylinder. The pitch in inches is equal to one divided by the number of threads per
inch.
Lead is the distance a screw thread advances axially in one complete revolution. On a single-thread screw,
the lead is equal to the pitch. On a double-thread screw, the lead is equal to twice the pitch, and on a triple-
thread screw, the lead is equal to three times the pitch (Figure 3-74).
Crest (also called "flat") is the top or outer surface of the thread joining the two sides.
Root is the bottom or inner surface joining the sides of two adjacent threads.
Side is the surface which connects the crest and the root (also called the flank).
Angle of the thread is the angle formed by the intersection of the two sides of the threaded groove.
Depth is the distance between the crest and root of a thread, measured perpendicular to the axis.
Major diameter is the largest diameter of a screw thread.
Minor diameter is the smallest diameter of a screw thread.
Pitch diameter is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder formed where the width of the groove is equal to
one-half of the pitch. This is the critical dimension of threading as the fit of the thread is determined by the
pitch diameter (Not used for metric threads).
A single thread is a thread made by cutting one single groove around a rod or inside a hole. Most
hardware made, such as nuts and bolts, has single threads.
Double threads have two grooves cut around the cylinder. There can be two, three, or four threads cut
around the outside or inside of a cylinder. These types of special threads are sometimes called multiple
threads.
A right-hand thread is a thread in which the bolt or nut must be turned to the right (clockwise) to tighten.
A left hand thread is a thread in which the bolt or nut must turn to the left (counterclockwise) to tighten.
Thread fit is the way a bolt and nut fit together as to being too loose or too tight.

Threads

One of the classic forms of mechanical connector used to magnify motion and force, and to convert
rotation to linear motion.

The basic terminology are as follows:

Right hand threads are turned clockwise to tighten, left hand threads are turned the other way.
Threads per Inch (TPI) are the number of turns of the thread per inch of length.
There are a number of standard threads, as outlined in the following subsections.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with helix and define each term. (1 mark each)
2. Sketch a helical curve and label the pitch and mean diameter. (5 marks)
3. How many equal parts will you divide the height of the cylinder
for 1 ¼ revolutions? (2 marks)
4. Explain how to find the true length of the helix and the helix angle. (5 marks)

Centroids
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will:

• define centroid.
• find the centroid by using funicular polygon method.
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Introduction
The Centroid of an area is the centre or mean position of all the elements of which the area consists. It is
the centre of an object or the centre of gravity. It is the point of intersection of all the medians. The centre
of mass of a uniform object is also called a centroid.
For shapes like square, circle and rectangle, the centroid is located simply by the intersecting diagonals or
centre lines however, for triangles, the intersection of the medians locates the centroid. The medians are
found by bisecting the internal angles. However for a combination of quadrilaterals in one figure, the ratio
of the area is formed to determine the centroid.

Centroid by Moments

This method allows the use of calculations, graphical drawings and ratios to find the centroid of complex
shapes.

How to find the Centroid of Complex Shapes

a) Divide the complex shape into simple shapes.

b) Locate the centroid of the simple shapes.
c) Calculate the area of the simple shapes to determine the ratio of the area.
d) Divide the distance between the centroids according to the ratio.
e) The centroid is located closer to the shape with a larger area.

Centroids found by funicular or link polygons

STEPS
1. Divide the figure again into
three composing rectangles
and find the three centroids
by drawing diagonals.
2. A force diagram represented
by the line abcd drawn to
any convenient scale shows
the area value in units of the
three rectangles.
3. Join abcd to any pole O.
obtain the funicular polygon.
4. Draw the three parallel lines
from the centroids.
5. Note these are parallel to the
force line abcd.
6. From x draw Bo parallel to
bo in the funicular.
7. From its intersection with
BC, draw Ao parallel to ao
in the funicular.
8. From y draw Do parallel to
do.
9. The intersection gives z,
which is the resultant
parallel to the three forces.
10. Draw the line of the
resultant parallel to the force
lines from the centroids.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with centroids and define each term in
your words. (1 mark each)
2. Define centroid and state the significance of the centroid? (2 marks)
3. Name the lines in a triangle that intersect to give the position of its centroid. (1 mark)
4. Draw and find the centroid of a trapezium. (5 marks)

Development by Triangulation
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will:

• identify the different methods of development.

• draw the development of various types of transitional pieces and their applications.

Introduction

In industries when different pipes or vessels having different shapes and

sizes are to be joined. These are facilitated by using special sections
called transition pieces. Transition pieces are the sheet metal objects
used for connecting pipes or openings either of different shapes of cross
sections or of same cross sections but not arranged in identical
positions. In majority of the cases, the transition pieces are composed of
plane surfaces and conical shapes. The conical surfaces are developed
by triangulation technique. These are highlighted in the subsequent
paragraphs.

The triangulation development is employed to obtain the development of transition pieces. These consist of
the following:

• Transition pieces joining a curved cross section to a non-curved cross section (e.g. Square to round,
hexagon to round, square to ellipse, etc.).
• Joining two non-curved cross sections (e.g. square to hexagon, square to rectangle, square to square in
un-identical positions).
• Joining only two curve sections (e.g. Circle to oval, circle to an ellipse, etc.).
• In this method, the lateral surfaces of the transition pieces are divided in to a number of triangles. By
finding the true lengths of the sides of each triangle, the development is drawn by laying each one of
the triangles in their true shapes adjoining each other.
• Pipes and ducts for conducting air, gases, powdered solids, etc. often requires two dissimilar sections
to be smoothly joined usually by a transition piece. A pattern of the development has to be made
before cutting, folding and joining the sheet metal to form the transformer piece.
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Developing a Rectangular Transition

The pattern of a rectangle to round is also developed using triangulation method. As is the square to round
fitting, the method of layout is still that of forming triangles on the pattern in their true length. Since the
fitting below is a symmetrical fitting, only a quarter of the plan view is necessary. However, one half is
marked with measuring lines to make the pattern layout clearer. The true lengths of the measuring lines are
found in the usual way, as shown.

Example 1: Transition Piece: Rectangle to Circle

Take a look at how we got started before you can begin to layout your pattern you have to find all your true
lengths. The only way you can see a true length line is perpendicular to its plane, the best way to see the
true lengths in a square to round fitting is to draw a plan view of the fitting as we did above.
You need to develop a true length bar. Using your dividers or trammel points, transfer from your plan
viewpoints A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, B6 and B1. Making sure to mark each one.
Draw a line from the top of your True length bar (which must be the total height of your fitting) down to
each reference mark on the base of your true length bar.
The two illustrations above are all you need to start your pattern.
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STEPS (3 stages; Plan, TL, Dev)

1. Label the edges A, B, C and D as shown in the diagram.

2. Divide the circle into twelve parts; Label the points 1,2,3,4 to 12 and join as in the diagram to A,
B, C, D.
3. Obtain true lengths of C6 and C, by rebatement to the elevation.
4. Draw the development by constructing the triangles. Lengths 01, 12, are chordal.
5. Take the dimension A to X from your top view and draw a straight line.
6. Set you dividers to dimension A to 1 from the true lengths and draw a small arch as a reference
point. Once your dividers are set, place one end on X and make a reference mark to cut the curve at
1(you will need to do this with each side.
7. Set your dividers on points 2, 3, 4 in your top view and transfer this dimension (archs) to your
drawing as we did in the preceding step.
8. Set your dividers to points 2, 3, 4; length from your true length bar and make a reference mark that
intersects with 2, 3, 4 reference mark.
9. Continue what you were doing in Fig.1 until you have all A1 through D1 lines transferred.
10. One last thing to do is to connect the points 1 through 12.
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Example 2

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with Triangulation and define each
term. (1 mark each)
2. Explain in your own words how to find the true length of a line. (2 marks)
3. Differentiate between triangulation development and parallel line
development. (2 marks)

Logarithmic Spiral & Construction

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will:

• define logarithmic and conic spirals.

• produce Logarithmic and Conic Spirals.
• construct a logarithmic scale and spiral given the vector
ratio and vector angle and vice versa.

This is the spiral for which the radius grows exponentially with
the angle. The logarithmic relation between radius and angle leads
to the name of logarithmic spiral.
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Introduction
In logarithmic spiral, the ratio of the lengths of consecutive radius vectors enclosing equal angles always
remains constant i.e. the values of vectorial angles are in arithmetical progression. The corresponding
values of radius vectors are in geometric progression.

The construction of a logarithmic spiral is illustrated in figure 4 as solution to the following problem.

Problem: Ratio of lengths of radius vectors enclosing angle of 45° = 5 : 4. Final radius vector of the spiral
is 90 mm. Draw the spiral.

STEPS

First step is to make a logarithmic scale.

Make two straight lines at an angle of 45°.

On line AB, mark A-8 = 90 mm.

A as center and A8 radius draw an arc to cut AC at 8'.
Mark A7 (= 4/5 of A8) on AB. Join 8' and 7.
Draw an arc with A as center and A7 radius to cut the line AC at 7'.
Draw a line through 7' parallel to 8'-7 to cut AB at 6.
Repeat the procedure to obtain points 6', 5', 7', 4'…0.
OP8= A8', OP7 = A7'….

Notes:

Given the angle between the vectors, the length of the first vector, and the ratio of vector lengths, 5 : 4.
From pole C draw radial lines of vectors by drawing x = vector, y = 5/4 X vector, angle 45° and by arcs
and parallels obtain the progressive vector lengths to be used on numbered radials. A fair curve through the
points gives the spiral as shown in the diagram.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with logarithmic spiral and define each
term. (1 mark each)
2. Define logarithmic spiral. (1 mark)
3. Explain what does the vector ratio 4 : 3 mean. (2 marks)
4. Describe the logarithmic spiral when its vector is increased and decreased
respectively. (4 marks)

Conic Sections
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will:

• identify the various parts of a conic section

• find the centre of curvature
• produce evolutes for an ellipse, a parabola and a
hyperbola.

Introduction
CONICS is part of geometry that deals with the right cone and the several curved formed by the truncation
of it.

EVOLUTE OF AN ELLIPSE (Centre of Curvature)

Centre of Curvature on a point of the ellipse. Join P to the focus F. Draw the
normal from P and where this crosses the axis erect a perpendicular to cut the
line from F. Now erect a perpendicular to line PF to cut the normal at C; this
is the point of curvature and a circle drawn on this centre will be tangential at
point P. Refer the diagram below explains how centre of curvature has been
located:

C = CENTRE OF CURVATURE OF POINT P

Centre of curvature at the vertex. Describe the arc centre F1 and radius V –
F1. Extend the line by distance VF, and return a parallel to give C on the
major axis. Refer the diagram below;
C = CENTRE OF CURVATURE OF VERTEX
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EVOLUTES OF ELLIPSE 1

Proceed by the method shown in the previous diagram plotting the centres
from points P1, P2, and P3. Join the centres of curvature in a fair curve, this is
the evolutes.

EVOLUTE OF ELLIPSE 2

Evolutes of an Ellipse 2. Where half the minor axis is less than the
distance FO, then the two points of the evolute will fall outside the
ellipse, otherwise the procedure for plotting the centres is the same.

EVOLUTE OF A PARABOLA (Centre of Curvature)

The loci of the centres of curvature of the parabola are drawn in the same
way as that of the ellipse already shown. Take suitable points on the
parabola 1, 2, 3, 4 and draw normal from these points. Draw also a line
from each point through the focal point. From the point where each normal
crosses the axis draw a perpendicular to cut the focal chord. From this point
draw a perpendicular to the focal chord to cut the normal. This second point
on each normal is the centre of curvature for original point on the parabola.
In the case of the parabola evolute, C of C for a point at vertex is the focal
point itself. The complete method is shown in the diagram.

EVOLUTE OF A HYPERBOLA (Centre of Curvature)

Points on the curvature are obtained by the same method

as shown below by drawing the normal and the focal
chord, then the perpendiculars to arrive at the final point
on the normal. The evolute is drawn through the points.
In the case of the hyperbola evolute, the centre of
curvature for a point at the vertex is shown in the small
diagram, and it should be noticed that distances V1 – F1
and F1 – 0 are in the same ratio as the eccentricity of the
hyperbola.
 27

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with evolutes of conics sections and
define each term. (1 mark each)
2. Describe how to find the centre of curvature of the vertex for the following
conic sections:

(i) Ellipse
(ii) Parabola
(iii) Hyperbola (9 marks)

Interpenetration
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will:

• define interpenetration.
• project the intersection of solids (cones and spheres;
cylinders and spheres).

Introduction
Every plane intersection of a sphere is a circle. To construct the points of the intersection curve of a sphere
and another surface, we choose a system of planes that cut the other surface in simplest possible curves.

When we intersect a sphere with a surface of revolution, we choose a system of planes that cut the surface
of revolution in circles.

Intersection of a Sphere and a Cylinder

The intersection curve of a sphere and a cylinder is a space curve of the 4th order.
This curve can be a one-branch curve in the case of partial intersection, a two-branch curve in the case of
complete intersection or a curve with one double point if the surfaces have a common tangent plane.
 28

PARTIAL INTERSECTION – a one-branch curve

Horizontal sections give a constant circle for the cylinder, and

varying diameter circles for the sphere.

Draw the traces of four horizontal sections on the top joining

point of the sphere to the lower joining point. Project lines
down to the plan. Using the centre of the cylinder cut arcs to
touch the circumference of the cylinder plan. Points obtained
should be used again to project the lines back up to the
elevation. Where the intersection occur with the four sections,
draw your line of interpenetration.

Intersection of a Sphere and a Cone

The intersection curve of a sphere and a cone is a space curve of the 4th order.
This curve can be a one-branch curve in the case of partial intersection, a two-branch curve in the case of
complete intersection or a curve with one double point.

The intersection curve has a double point in two cases – if the surfaces have a common tangent plane in a
regular point or when the sphere passes through the double point of the cone, its vertex.

PARTIAL INTERSECTION – a one-branch curve COMPLETE INTERSECTION – a two-branch

curve
 29

PARTIAL INTERSECTION

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with Interpenetration and define

each term. (1 mark each)
2. Describe the method of finding the intersection of the following solids:

(i) Cylinder and Sphere

(ii) Cone and Sphere (8 marks)

Cams
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic, students will:

• define cam.
• construct the profile of a cam and displacement graph offset to
various followers for one revolution for one, two or more types of
motions.
• interpret the profile of the cam and its displacement graph.
 30

Introduction
A cam is a component on which a particular profile has been machined.
The profile of the cam imparts (causes) a follower to move in a particular
way. This can be seen if we examine the diagram below. As the shaft is
rotated the cam rotates with it causing the follower to move up and down.

Cams fall into two main categories:

Plate / Face cams and Cylindrical Cams

The plate cam is merely a flat disc that has had a certain shape (or
profile) machined on to it. The follower is placed in contact with this profile and as the cam is rotated the
profile of it translates into a particular movement of the follower usually up and down.

The face cam is a disc that has a groove machined into its face and a roller follower is used to follow the
groove as the cam rotates.

The cylinder or drum cam is a cylinder that has had a profile machined onto it and as the cam rotates the
profile imparts a particular motion on its follower.

Types of follower:
There are three main types of follower: the knife edge follower (seen in the cam and follower system table
below) the roller follower (seen in the cam and follower system table below) the flat follower (seen in the
cam and follower system table below).

Worked Example:

Draw the cam profile for following conditions:

Follower type = Knife edged, in-line; lift = 50 mm; base circle radius = 50 mm; out stroke with SHM, for
60° cam rotation; dwell for 45° cam rotation; return stroke with SHM, for 90° cam rotation; dwell for the
remaining period. Determine the maximum velocity and acceleration during out stroke and return stroke if
the cam rotates at 1000 rpm in clockwise direction.
 31

Displacement diagram:

Cam profile: Construct base circle. Mark points 1, 2, 3…..in direction opposite to the direction of cam
rotation. Transfer points a, b, c…..l from displacement diagram to the cam profile and join them by a
smooth free hand curve. This forms the required cam profile.

Draw the cam profile for the same operating conditions same as above with the follower offset by 10 mm
to the left of cam center.
Displacement diagram: Same as previous case.
Cam profile: Construction is same as previous case, except that the lines drawn from 1, 2, 3…. are
tangential to the offset circle of 10 mm dia. as shown in the figure below.
 32

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms you don’t understand and find their definitions. (1 mark each)
2. Name the different types of Cams. (1 mark each)
3. Sketch the four different types of Cam Followers. (12 marks)
4. Name and sketch the different types of motions. (12 marks)

Rolling Wheels
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will:

• define different types of rolling wheels and state their

applications.
• identify the rolling wheel and the base line or arc.
• differentiate between different types of rolling wheels.
• construct and draw different types of rolling wheels.
 33

Introduction
Roulettes are curves generated by the rolling contact of one curve or line on another curve or line. There
are various types of roulettes. The most common types of roulettes used in engineering practice are:
Cycloids, Trochoids, and Involutes. Assume a wheel is rolling along a surface without slipping. Trace the
locus of a point on the wheel. Depending on the position of the point and the geometry of the surface on
which the wheel rolls, different curves are obtained.

Worked Example

Construct the locus of point P when circle rolls along path for ¾ revolution without slipping.
 34

Solution:

STEPS

1. Divide the P circle into 12 parts.

2. Take the distance Q and mark 1 on the base line.
3. Use 1/12 of the generating circle to mark on the base arc. Draw lines from the centre of the base arc
to all points on the base arc.
4. Extend the lines from the centre of the base arc to the centre arc to locate centres. Set the compass
to the radius of the P circle and with centers, inscribe arcs on the arcs drawn from each point of the
generating circle in its rolling direction.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms you don’t understand and find their definitions. (1 mark each)
2. Define Hypocycloid. (1 mark)
3. Differentiate between Inferior and Superior Epitrochoid. (2 marks)
 35

Traces
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic, students will:

• identify vertical and horizontal planes.

• find the true lengths of lines inclined to both the planes.
• construct true shapes of inclined planes.

Introduction

To Find True length and True Inclinations of a Line

Many times if the top and front views of a line are given, the true length and true inclinations of a line is
required to be determined.

The top and front views of the object can be drawn from if any of the following data are available:

(a) Distance between the end projectors,

(b) Distance of one or both the end points from HP and VP and
(c) Apparent inclinations of the line.

The problems may be solved by:

(i) Rotating line method or

(ii) Rotating trapezoidal plane method or
(iii) Auxiliary plane method.

Rotating Line Method

The method of obtaining the top and front views of a line, when its true length and true inclinations are
given.
When a view of a line is parallel to the XY line, its other view will be in true length and at true inclination.
By following the procedure mentioned previously, in the reverse order, the true length and true inclinations
of a line from the given set of top and front views can be found.
 36

The step by step procedure is shown below in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Determination of true length and true inclinations of a line

• Draw the top view ab and the front view a'b' as given
• Rotation of the top view: With center a and radius ab rotate the top view to the new position ab1
to make it parallel to the XY line. Since ab1 is parallel to the XY line, its corresponding front view
will be in true length and at true inclination.
• Rotation of the front view: With center a' and radius a'b' rotate the front view to the new position
a'b2' parallel to the XY line. Since a'b2' is parallel to the XY line, its corresponding top view
will be in true length and at true inclination. In this position, the line will be parallel to HP and
inclined at f to VP. Through b draw the locus of B in the top view. Project b2' to get b2, in the top
view. Connect ab2 which will be in true length and true inclination of which the given line AB
makes with VP.

Traces of a Line

• The trace of a line is defined as a point at which the given line, if produced, meets or intersects a
plane.
• When a line meets HP, (or if necessary on the extended portion of HP), the point at which the line
meets or intersects the horizontal plane is called horizontal trace (HT) of the line and denoted by
the letter H.
• When a line meets VP (or if necessary on the extended portion of VP), the point at which the line
meets or intersects the vertical plane, is called vertical trace (VT) of the line and denoted by the
letter V.
• When the line is parallel to both HP and VP, there will be no traces on the said planes. Therefore
the traces of lines are determined in the following positions of the lines.
 37

Trace of a Line Perpendicular to one Plane and Parallel to the Other

Since the line is perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other, the trace of the line is obtained only
on the plane to which it is perpendicular, and no trace of the line is obtained on the other plane to which it
is parallel. Figures 2 and 3 illustrates the trace of a line parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP and
parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP respectively.

Figure 2: Trace of line parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP

Figure 3: Trace of a line perpendicular to the VP and parallel to HP

Traces of a line inclined to one plane and parallel to the other

When the line is inclined to one plane and parallel to the other, the trace of the line is obtained only on the
plane to which it is inclined, and no trace is obtained on the plane to which it is parallel. Figure 4 shows
the horizontal trace of line AB which is in lined HP and parallel to VP.
 38

Figure 4: Horizontal trace of line AB

Figure 5 shows the vertical trace of line AB which is inclined to VP and parallel to HP

Figure 5: Vertical trace of line AB

Traces of a Line Inclined to both the Planes

Figure 6 shows the Vertical trace (V) and Horizontal Trace (H) of Line AB inclined at q to HP and Φ to
VP.
The line when extended intersects HP at H, the horizontal trace, but will never intersect the portion of VP
above XY line, i.e. within the portion of the VP in the 1st quadrant. Therefore VP is extended below HP
such that when the line AB is produced it will intersect in the extended portion of VP at V, the vertical
trace. In this case both horizontal trace (H) and Vertical Trace (V) of the line AB lie below XY line.
 39

Figure 6: Vertical trace and horizontal trace of line AB which is inclined to both vertical plane and
horizontal plane.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with traces and define each term. (1 mark each)
2. Describe how to find the vertical and horizontal trace of a line. (6 marks)

Bio-sand Filter Project:

Niusawa Methodist High School
 40

CHAPTER 2: DESIGN & ENTERPRISING

Presentation and Marketing
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this chapter, students will:

• identify suitable methods of presentation.

• prepare visual and oral presentation about a design.
• do a feasibility study for the design.
• use various techniques to market the product.
• write and present their business plan.
• research and present their findings on various engineering
materials.

Introduction
The oral presentation is part of secondary school learning life by presenting in front of fellow college
friends and colleagues. The need to present what you have done as your senior year technical student
project can bring about a challenge and lifetime experience. Beside, you need to prepare also for the life
outside school. In tertiary institutions the very same activity to present is also prominent. It will involve
presenting the functionality and aesthetic of your project.

What is Visual and Oral Presentation?

Oral presentation is normally prepared like an essay. Your design project is compiled and ready for
presentation. A working model to be used for presentation. Students do the research and ensure that the
material is well-planned and clear.
An oral presentation is a meeting of a group to listen and discuss ideas- in this case, student in the
introduction to technology class will listen to the presentation of your final project. The oral presentation
simply means that the emphasis is on the elements – the talking.

There are several things an Oral Presentation is NOT

It is not a sermon

You are not using the language of the church. In that situation the minister is all
knowledgeable and administer to the believers. In an oral presentation, you are
trying to share ideas and establish a learning relationship with your audience.
They will question you to gain information or to check their knowledge.
It is not a lecture.

You are not standing up in front of students who know much less than you and you are not expecting the
audience to listen to your words and then leave when it is over. In an oral presentation you are talking to
people who often have as much knowledge as you, but your job is to share a particular interpretation. You
need to interest and involve your audience.
 41

It is not a memorized speech

The aim is not to remember every word and say them all in order
they were written down. In an oral presentation, you share
knowledge so it is more important to understand what you are
talking about than it is to remember every word. You should know
and understand the content of your presentation so that you can talk
about it in an intelligent, coherent way.

Planning the Visual or Written Form

Prepare the design project effectively. Compile every drawing sheets properly. Ensure that the floor plan is
well dimensioned, also showing the section format. This need to be clearly shown on another A3 Sheet
with details.
All drawings need to be in pencil, CAD drawn or neatly outlined by ink pen. The clear the drawings the
easier it is to present.
A working model should look presentable. Use proper scale and then explain and discuss appropriately
your design project.

Presenting the Oral Presentation- Language

The language of presentation is usually formal that means no slang although you can use contractions. The
language should also be simple so that every member of an audience has the ability to follow what you are
saying.

Introduction

Introduce the topic- the design project, acknowledgements, and the format of your presentation.
For example:
Good morning fellow colleagues. My presentation today is on…../ I would like to talk to you today
about…./the topic of my presentation is…..

The body of the oral presentation

First point: I will begin by…

First of all….
I will start by….

Second point: then I will…

I will follow that by…
Next I will….
Following that, I will….

Third point: finally I will…

I will conclude by….

The conclusion

Summarize at the end of the oral presentation a clear conclusion about your design project.
 42

Presenting the Oral Presentation – Speaking

Stance: (this means how you stand)

Face the audience. Stand evenly with your weight evenly on both feet. Don’t jiggle from side to side, this
can be very distracting for the audience. They pay too much attention to your movements that they don’t
pay enough to your oral presentation.

Gesture: Means movement of your hands. Don’t scratch your head when you are nervous.

Voice: A loud/firm clear audible voice is eminent for the oral presentation. Try not to read your work but
be normal when you are presenting.

Cue cards: Refer to it note where you are presenting at that moment. Don’t talk from reading your notes,
you will sound like a robot.

Visual aids: Use Overhead Projector, charts, diagrams and appropriate

photos, pamphlets, graphs to bring light and interest for discussion to
your audiences. Visual aids are there to support your oral
presentations.

Presenting the Oral Presentation – Questions

This part of the oral presentation is designed to see if you can take
questions from the audience. Ask the questions by giving yourself a
few moments to think about what you say. Stay on the first point-
don’t need to give long answers.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define the term stance. (1 mark)

2. Define sermon. (1 mark)
3. Define oral presentation. (1 mark)

Basics in Writing a Business Plan

INTRODUCTION

Many think of a business plan as a one-time event, however, this is a very limited viewpoint. The business
plan, which can be in many different formats, can be used for a variety of purposes, including validating an
idea, getting funded, and managing a business successfully.
The type of business plan format you use will depend on what your needs are. If investors request a
traditional plan, you will want to follow the standard business plan format. If you’re creating a plan to
manage your business once you’re up and running, a Lean plan will suit you best. If you’re simply trying
to validate a business idea, you’ll use the One-page pitch format.
Here, you’ll find a checklist for each of these situations, so you can choose the one that fits your particular
needs. We’ll walk you through creating a One-Page Pitch, a standard business plan (the traditional option),
and a lean business plan, with a checklist for each.
 43

If you’re writing a One-Page Pitch:

A One-Page Pitch is the simplest version of the business plan you can write.
There’s not much difference between it and the executive summary in the standard business plan—though
of course, as the name implies, it should fit onto just one page.
You can use this version of the business plan to validate your idea or to provide investors with a clear and
brief introduction to your business. You can also use it to get all of your ideas onto paper before you begin
writing a standard business plan.

You can create a One-Page Pitch by following along with the checklist below:

• Describe your business in one sentence (what do you do, and who do you do it for?).
• Describe the problem your potential customers have.
• Describe your solution to the problem—this is your product or service (how does it solve your
customer’s problem?).
• Explain who your target market is and how large it is.
• Describe your competitive advantage (talk about how your customers are solving their problem
currently as well).
• Describe how you will sell to your customers (will it be directly, or via a storefront, distributors, or
a website?).
• Describe what marketing activities you will use to attract customers.
• Detail your business model – this is how you will make money (what are your revenue streams?).
• List your major expenses (don’t go into a lot of detail here – it’s early days at this point).
• List your primary goals and objectives that you want to accomplish over the next few months.
• Outline your management team and any people you want to hire to help you launch your business.
• List any partners and resources you need to help you launch.

If you’re writing a Lean Plan:

Lean Planning is a methodology that will help you grow a better, smarter business a lot faster than
traditional business plan methodologies allow for.

While you can use Lean Planning to help you produce a business plan document, the goal of Lean
Planning is greater. You can use this methodology to validate your business ideas (and keep doing
this throughout the life of your business), as well as help you optimize and streamline the day-to-
day management of your business.

To complete your Lean Plan, follow the steps below:

• Write a One-Page Pitch (as outlined above—this is how every Lean Plan begins).
• Test your idea (get out and talk to your potential customers—make sure you’re on the same page
as they are).
o Do they have the problem you think they have?
o What do they think of your solution?
o What’s the best way to sell to them?
o What marketing tactics will work? What won’t work?
• Review your results (you will likely do this throughout the life of your business).
• Review your financial performance if you’re already up and running.
• Revise your plan based on what you’ve learned.
• Set your sales goals and create a budget for your expenses.
o Build an expense budget.
o Build a cash flow forecast.
 44

o Build a sales forecast e.g.

Unit Sales Jan Feb Mar Apr

New Bicycles 30 34 36 40
Accessories and Parts 125 142 150 167
Clothing 75 85 90 100
Repair and Service 17 17 17 23
Total Unit Sales 247 278 293 330

Unit Prices
New Bicycles $500 $500 $500 $500
Accessories and Parts $70 $70 $70 $70
Clothing $60 $60 $60 $60
Repair and Service $50 $50 $50 $50

Total Sales Jan Feb Mar Apr

New Bicycles $16,000 $17,090 $18,000 $20,010
Accessories and Parts $2,750 $4,260 $4,500 $5,000
Clothing $4,500 $5,000 $5,400 $6,000
Repair and Service $2,550 $2,550 $2,550 $3,450
Total Sales $25,800 $28,900 $30,450 $34,460
Bike store sales units, prices, sales.

The benefits of positive cash flow

Back to the basics: Positive cash flow is defined as ending up with more liquid money on hand at
the end of a given period of time compared to what was available when that period began.

Businesses that master cash flow management can:

• Pay their bills. Positive cash flow ensures employees get checks each payroll cycle. It also gives
decision makers the funds they need to pay suppliers, creditors, and the government.
• Invest in new opportunities. Today’s business world moves quickly. When cash is readily
available, business owners can invest in opportunities that may arise at any given point in time.
• Stomach the unpredictable. Having access to cash means that whenever equipment breaks,
clients don’t pay their invoices on time, or new government regulations come into effect,
businesses can survive.
• Once you’re up and running, be sure to hold regular plan review meetings to ensure you stay on
track.

If you’re writing a Standard Business Plan:

For most people pitching a bank or an investor, a standard business plan will be the required
format for the business plan. This is the version of the plan these investors are most familiar with,
and the version that will give them the most information.

If you want to increase your chances of getting funded, follow this format.

• Write an executive summary (many people choose to do this last)

o Talk about the problem you are solving, what your solution is (your product or service
usually), the market, the competition, and some key financial highlights.

• Write the products and services section

o Go into more detail here about the problem and why it is worth solving.
o Discuss your solution to the problem (your product or service).
o Talk a little more about how you validated your idea and what your future plans look like.

• Write the market analysis summary

o Include more detailed information about your market segmentation and your target market
segment strategy, key customers, future markets and the competition.
 45

• Write the strategy and implementation summary

o Discuss your marketing plan and your sales plan.
o Include information about your location, facilities, technology, equipment, tools, key
metrics and important milestones.

• Write the company and management summary

o Write about the organizational structure of your company, the management team, any gaps
in the team, and your personnel plan.
o Include information on your company’s history, as well as information about ownership.

• Write the financial plan

o Arguably one of the most important parts of your business plan, this will include:
 A Revenue/Sales Forecast
 Expenses
 Projected Profit and Loss
 Projected Cash Flow
 Projected Balance Sheet
 Business Ratios

• Write the appendix

Even if you’re not seeking funding for your business, don’t forgo writing your business
plan.

We’ve done our research and we know that business planning makes you more successful. If you don’t
need to pitch for funding, write a Lean Plan and use it to help manage your business more efficiently.
Make sure to have regular plan review meetings too.

Getting the formatting right for your business plan is important. Here are my top eight tips to make sure
your business plan accomplishes what it needs to do.

Always Start With an Executive Summary

The executive summary introduces your business to your reader. If you don’t nail the executive summary,
no one is going to read any further.

Every executive summary should include a very brief overview of the following:

• The problem your business is addressing.

• Your solution to the problem (i.e., your product or service).
• Your target market.
• Why the timing is right for your business.
• Financial forecast highlights.

If you’re raising money or presenting your plan to outsiders, you’ll also want to cover:

• The team behind the business.

• How much money you’re looking to raise.

Ideally, your executive summary should fit on one or two pages.

 46

Here is a simple format for writing a Business Plan:

BUSINESS PLAN

Name of Business:

Name of Owner(s)

Date:

Prepared by

Registered Address:

Telephone Address:

Mobile Number:

Email Address:

1. BUSINESS IDEA:

MY BUSINESS IDEA:

Type of business o Retailing

o Wholesaling
o Agriculture, forestry or fishing
o Manufacturing
o Service providing
o Combination of…….
My products or services will be

My customers will be: (specific details)

Names of people in my Business Work/Educational Background

Skills ,experience and knowledge I have of this type of business:

I have chosen this business idea because:

2. LEGAL FORM OF BUSINESS

SOLE TRADER
PARTNERSHIP
COMPANY
COOPERATIVE
 47

3. STAFF
Name Position Roles and Monthly Wages
responsibility

4. IMPORTANT FACTORS OF SUCCESS IN YOUR LINE OF BUSINESS

5. RISKS INVOLVED AND HOW THE RISKS WILL BE MINIMIZED

6. FUTURE PLAN OF YOUR BUSINESS

7. MARKETING PLAN

PRODUCT- What is your product/service? What will make customers buy from you and not from
others who sell the same products/service?

PRICE- At what price(s) will you sell your product so that you can earn more? How does you
price(s) compare with your competitors? (Is your price higher, lower, or the same?) Why?

Will you give discounts? How much?

Will you sell on credit? To whom? Why? How will you collect?
Will you charge interest?

PLACE- Where do you plan to sell your product/service? How do you plan to distribute it?
(Retail/Wholesale, Direct/Indirect?) Why?

8. PRODUCT AND PRICE TABLE

Products or Services My Unit Selling Price Competitors Selling Price

9. SALES PROJECTION-MONTHLY
Products Number to sell Unit Selling Price Total Selling Price
(Monthly) (Units/Price x Number to sell
 48

10. SALES AND COSTS PLAN

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
SALES
From
Product:
From
Product:
TOTAL
SALES
COSTS
Direct
material
Cost
Direct
Labour
Costs
Indirect
Costs
TOTAL
COSTS
PROFIT

11. START UP CAPITAL OR PROJECT COST PLAN

No No. Required Unit Cost Total Cost Loan or

External
Source
A FIXED ASSETS
1
2

TOTAL FIXED ASSETS

B Operational Expenses
1
2
TOTAL
OPERATIONAL
EXPENSES
TOTAL START UP
COST
 49

12. CASH FLOW PLAN

CASH IN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 TOTAL
Beginning
CASH

TOTAL
CASH
IN(A)
CASH
OUT

Total
Cash
Out(B)
Cash
Bal(A-B)

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain the importance of writing a business plan. (3 marks)

2. Imagine you would like to start a business, using the format above,
write a business plan for your new business venture. (10 marks)

Research: Working and Forming of Non-metals

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic, students will:

• identify the different types of non-metal materials used in engineering.

• research and investigate on the properties and uses of non-metals in engineering.
• present their findings.

Introduction
Research topics on non-metals are based on the following:

 Types of Plastics – Thermoplastics and Thermosetting

 Rubber
 Fibre Glass
 Glass production
 50

Research: Mineral Resources in Fiji

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic, students will:

• identify the different types of mineral resources in Fiji used in engineering.

• research and investigate the different types of mineral resources found in Fiji.
• present their findings.

Introduction
Research topics on mineral resources are based on the following:

 Metals – Gold, Copper and Silver

 Industrial minerals – cement (Portland and Blended) and Bauxite

Bio-sand Filter Project:

Bucalevu Secondary School
 51

CHAPTER 3: APPLIED DRAWING

Simple Electric Circuits
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this chapter, students will:

• identify Circuit components of EMF source, conductors, load and control.

• identify Electric schematic symbols.
• read pictorial and schematic drawings.
• sketch schematic drawings.
• sketch components wired in series.
• sketch components wired in parallel.
• measure EMF (voltage), current (amps) and resistance (ohms) with a multimeter.

Introduction

An electric circuit is a closed path that electrons can flow through. All electric circuits have four basic
components

• EMF source - Electricity requires EMF. The source can be a battery, a photovoltaic panel, or the
electric outlet in your room. If it's the latter, the real source may be a hydroelectric generating
station, for example.
• Load - The load refers to the device that consumes the energy (converts it to another
form). Examples are lights (converts electricity to heat and light) and electric motors (converts
electricity to heat and rotary motion).
• Conductors - Conductors are the pathway that electrons follow through the circuit. Examples are
wires and copper traces on circuit boards.
• Control - Control is the mechanism that is used to start, stop, and regulate the electric
current. Examples are switches and variable resistors (i.e. volume controls).

Drawing Circuits – Pictorial Drawings and Schematic Drawings

A pictorial drawing of a simple circuit is shown below:

 52

Most of the time, it is not convenient to make pictorial drawings of electric circuits. Instead, a type of
drawing called a schematic is used. From previous activities, you should recall that we use letters as
symbols to represent voltage, current, resistance and power. For schematic drawings we use a different set
of symbols. A few basic ones are shown below.

Symbols Description
Dry cell. A single cell, with a potential of 1.5 volts. A source of chemical energy that is
converted to electricity. AA, AAA, C, and D cells are 1.5 volts.

Battery. Two or more cells, with a potential of 3 or more volts. 9 volt batteries have six 1.5
volt cells.

Light or lamp. A device that converts electricity into heat and light. Incandescent bulbs
have an element that gets hot enough to emit light.

Electric motor. An electric motor converts electricity into rotary motion and heat. Heat is a
byproduct.

On-Off Switch. A switch is a control element that starts and stops the flow of electrons.

Using schematic symbols, the circuit drawn above as a pictorial would look like the figure below. As you
can see, the drawing is much simpler. It is also easier to draw, and easier to read.

Figure: Schematic of Light Circuit

Look at the next schematic. Can you identify the components in the circuit?

Figure: Schematic — Can you identify Item 1 and Item 2?

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Circuits with Components connected in Series

The following pictorial shows two lights connected in series. Components connected in series means that
electrons flow through one and then the other, losing some of its energy to each one. In the case of the
lights, each light will be less bright than if there was only one light in the circuit.

Figure: Circuit with Lights connected in Series

As the schematic below shows, the electrons flowing through the circuit have to pass through the two
lights in sequence.

Figure: Circuit Schematic Lights connected in Series

 54

Circuits with Components connected in Parallel

The next pictorial shows two lights connected in parallel. There are separate paths for electrons to flow
through each light. As a result the lights are full brightness.

Figure: Circuit with Lights connected in Parallel

The parallel circuit schematic shows the two paths for current flow in the circuit.

Figure: Circuit Schematic Lights Connected in Parallel

Electrical Measurement

The previous activity introduced EMF, current and resistance measurements (voltage, amperes, and ohms
respectively). It also showed that the three had the mathematical relationship of

EMF (in volts) = Current (in amps) × resistance (in ohms)

and that this relationship is, in fact, called Ohm's Law.

To measure electrical quantities, we commonly use a multimeter, of the type supplied for this course.
 55

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with electrical circuits and define
each term. (1 mark each)
2. Differentiate between parallel and series circuits. (2 marks)
3. State one advantage and disadvantage of a series circuit. (2 marks)
4. Draw the following electrical symbols: switch, cell, light bulb. (6 marks)

Solar Powered Systems

When choosing a solar powered system, home owners are faced with a decision on 3 different kinds of
systems - Grid-Tied, Battery Grid-Tied or Off Grid. So what does this mean? Which one is better? Well,
it depends on how you want to use your solar power.

Each system has advantages and disadvantages. Deciding on which

system is better for your household should be based solely on what
goals you have for the solar energy to do for your home. For instance,
do you need it for backup when the power goes out? Are you
installing solar to lower your monthly utility bill? Or do you just want
to get rid of the utility company completely and become self-
sustainable? Here is a list of each system and its' benefits and
drawbacks.

Grid Tied Solar System

A grid-tied system connects directly to the electrical

wiring in your home via an electrical inverter. The
inverter takes the low voltage DC current from your
solar panels (or wind turbine) and converts it to the high
voltage AC electricity which is what your home runs on
(usually 120v AC). It is setup like this:

With this method, the system is tied to the electrical grid

and your home will use up the converted solar energy
during the day. Any solar electricity you don't use gets
sent out onto the grid to be used by neighbors. The
electricity returning to the grid runs through your meter
and in most cases the electric company will pay you for it. In the evening when your solar panels are no
longer producing power, your home will return to using power from the grid. While this seems like the
best option for some, it isn't much help if the electricity from the power company goes out.

To prevent electricity from leaving your house and energizing the power lines in the area, a safety
mechanism shuts the inverter off if the power from the electric company shuts down allowing the power
company to safely work on the power lines in the neighborhood to get the electricity back up and running.

So while the electricity is out in the neighborhood, you are out of power as well even if your solar panels
are pumping electricity into the house.
 56

Battery Grid Tied Solar System

To compensate for this outage problem, many people

choose to have a grid-tied system with battery
backup. This method works the same as a grid tied
system, except for the fact you have a battery bank which
will store electricity to use when the power goes out. The
power from the solar panels comes into your house just
like the previous method, but instead of going straight to
your home wiring, it goes to your battery bank via a
charge controller. The charge controller will determine
the state of your battery bank and charge the system and
maintain the full charge state before it will send any
power to your house wiring.

Once the batteries are charged, the rest of the power produced from your panels feeds the wiring in your
house while your battery bank sits on standby. At night when your solar panels aren't producing any power,
the power from the batteries begins feeding electricity to the house through the converter. It will continue
this way until the solar panels begin producing power again or until it depletes whatever stored electricity it
has.

In the event of a power outage, the main power in your house will still go out. However, power that is
stored in the battery bank can be utilized using a modified sine or pure sine inverter. This usually will not
be enough electricity to power the entire house, but it can be wired to run your emergency items such as
lights, fans, small appliances, laptops and such. Of course the bigger the battery bank, and the larger the
converters, the more appliances you'll be able to run for longer periods of time.

Off Grid Solar System

Finally, there's the long-sought off-grid

setup. Off-grid means no electricity from outside
sources like the electric company. It's similar to
the grid-tied with battery backup, except it uses
only the battery backup part of the system.

All the power from the solar panels is used to

charge and maintain the battery bank. The battery
power is then converted into 120v AC and can be
wired throughout the house just like you would
any standard 120v wiring. This is a much more
expensive setup and you have to monitor every
watt of power you produce vs. every watt you use
to ensure you don't run out of electricity.

You need a big enough solar panel array and a big enough battery bank to fully cover every watt of energy
you use on a daily basis, including at night when the solar panels aren't producing any energy, and your
home is running off only the stored power in your battery bank. This type of system is completely
unaffected by the utility company and neighborhood power status. However you also don't have the
utility's grid power to use as a safety net. If you run out of power at night, or don't produce enough during
the day due to cloudy conditions, you're out of power until the solar panels are back up and running. Many
people with off-grid setups also install wind turbines to help with production on cloudy days and night
time. In the few times when it's absolutely necessary, they usually keep a gas or diesel powered generator
on hand for backup as well.
 57

Solar Heaters

Increasing interest in solar water heating systems is being

driven by rising energy prices. The initial costs are higher
than traditional gas or electric water heaters, but solar water
heaters can operate more efficiently and can save money in
the long run. In many cases, a traditional water heater is still
installed as a backup. This setup still delivers savings since
water entering the traditional water heater is preheated. The
amount of hot water a solar water heater produces depends on
the type of system, collector area, and potential solar energy.
Choosing the right system is critical to achieve peak energy
efficiency.

All solar water heaters utilize collectors to capture solar energy as heat. Flat plate collectors are well-
insulated boxes containing a black absorber plate shielded by several layers of glass or other transparent
material. Light travels through the glass and strikes the absorber plate, turning the light's energy into heat.
Fluid is circulated through tubing attached to the back plate to collect and transfer the heat to where it is
needed. Evacuated tube collectors have two lines running through the inner tube, which is the absorber. A
vacuum between the inner tube and the outer tube minimizes heat loss. Evacuated tube collectors have the
ability to effectively collect heat in cooler climates and during cloudy days. Unsurprisingly, evacuated tube
collectors are more expensive than flat plate collectors.
After fluid has been heated in the collector, it flows to an insulated storage tank - where it is ready for use
or to a heat exchanger. Some solar water heaters have a storage tank attached to the collector, but most
often they are independent units. A storage tank may not be required for some applications, like heating a
swimming pool, but it is a very common component in most installations.

Solar water heaters are either active or passive. Active

systems use electric pumps, valves, and controllers to
move fluid through the system. Active solar water
heater systems have the potential to be more efficient,
but they tend to cost more, need more maintenance,
and require electricity. When retrofitting a home,
active design is usually selected because it
offers greater flexibility regarding the location of the
solar collectors and storage tank. Passive systems
have no pump or electrical requirements. They are not
as efficient, but they cost less, require less
maintenance, and are more reliable.

Systems are also classified as direct (open loop) or

indirect (closed loop). Direct systems use solar energy
to directly heat the water you will drink, shower with,
etc. Indirect systems separate the fluid that circulates
through the solar collectors from the water that you
will consume. The primary difference in equipment is whether a heat exchanger is used to warm the
potable water. Indirect systems are almost always active due to the increased circulation requirements.
Climate and the potential for freezing temperatures are major considerations when choosing between direct
and indirect systems.

Indirect solar water heaters may use water in the solar collector loop, but it is also possible to use a
combination of water and glycol. The combination of water and glycol is a very typical antifreeze mix
which has a lower freezing point than water (as low as -60°F). Glycol is toxic, so heat exchangers are
typically double-walled for safety. Indirect systems are more expensive and require more maintenance, but
they offer the benefit of operating in areas that experience freezing temperatures.
Many people don't realize that solar water heaters can function in almost any climate. Their effectiveness
depends on available solar energy, but also on the temperature of the water source. If a solar water heater
 58

can increase the temperature of incoming water from 60°F to 90°F, this can provide a substantial energy
saving when used in conjunction with a traditional water heater. That’s 30°F that you don't have to heat
with gas or electricity!

Careful research is required to size your solar water heating system appropriately. Consider your family's
average water usage, local climate and the potential for freezing weather, and the efficiency of the system
you are interested in. It is also advisable to make sure there are no restrictions in the local building codes or
neighborhood covenants before installing a solar water heater.

With proper planning, installing a solar water heater can protect you from rising energy costs, reduce your
carbon footprint, and make your homestead a little more self-sufficient.

Hydropower
Hydropower or water power is power derived from the energy of falling water or fast running water,
which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydropower from many kinds
of watermills has been used as a renewable energy source for irrigation and the operation of various
mechanical devices, such as gristmills, sawmills, textile mills, trip hammers, dock cranes, domestic lifts,
and ore mills. A trompe, which produces compressed air from falling water, is sometimes used to power
other machinery at a distance.

In the late 19th century, hydropower became a source for generating electricity. Crag side in
Northumberland was the first house powered by hydroelectricity in 1878 and the first commercial
hydroelectric power plant was built at Niagara Falls in 1879. In 1881, street lamps in the city of Niagara
Falls were powered by hydropower.
Since the early 20th century, the term has been
used almost exclusively in conjunction with the
modern development of hydroelectric power.
International institutions such as the World
Bank view hydropower as a means for economic
development without adding substantial amounts of
carbon to the atmosphere, but dams can have
significant negative social and environmental
impacts.

Nadarivatu Dam

Hydraulic Power-pipe Networks

Hydraulic power networks used pipes to carrying pressurized water and transmit mechanical power from
the source to end users. The power source was normally a head of water, which could also be assisted by a
pump. These were extensive in Victorian cities in the United Kingdom. A hydraulic power network was
also developed in Geneva, Switzerland. The world famous Jet d'Eau was originally designed as the over-
pressure relief valve for the network.
 59

Compressed Air Hydro

Where there is a plentiful head of water it can be made to generate compressed air directly without moving
parts. In these designs, a falling column of water is purposely mixed with air bubbles generated through
turbulence or a venturi pressure reducer at the high level intake. This is allowed to fall down a shaft into a
subterranean, high-roofed chamber where the now-compressed air separates from the water and becomes
trapped. The height of the falling water column maintains compression of the air in the top of the chamber,
while an outlet, submerged below the water level in the chamber allows water to flow back to the surface
at a lower level than the intake. A separate outlet in the roof of the chamber supplies the compressed air. A
facility on this principle was built on the Montreal River at Ragged Shutes near Cobalt, Ontario in 1910
and supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines.

Generating Hydropower Methods

Conventional (dams)

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential

energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator.
The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and
on the difference in height between the source and the water's
outflow. This height difference is called the head. A large pipe
delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine.

Pumped-storage

This method produces electricity to supply high

peak demands by moving water
between reservoirs at different elevations. At times
of low electrical demand, the excess generation
capacity is used to pump water into the higher
reservoir. When the demand becomes greater,
water is released back into the lower reservoir
through a turbine. Pumped-storage schemes
currently provide the most commercially important
means of large-scale grid energy storage and
improve the daily capacity factor of the generation
system. Pumped storage is not an energy source, and
appears as a negative number in listings.

Run-of-the-river

Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small

or no reservoir capacity, so that only the water coming from
upstream is available for generation at that moment, and any
oversupply must pass unused. A constant supply of water from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a
significant advantage in choosing sites for run-of-the-river.
 60

Tide

Tidal energy is produced through the use of tidal energy

generators. These large underwater turbines are placed in
areas with high tidal movements, and are designed to
capture the kinetic motion of the ebbing and surging of
ocean tides in order to produce electricity. Tidal power
has great potential for future power and electricity
generation because of the massive size of the oceans.
These articles explore the potential energy of tidal power.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with Solar Powered and Hydro Powered
systems and define each term. (1 mark each)
2. Describe how the following systems work:

(i) Solar system

(ii) Hydropower system (6 marks)

Engineering Drawing
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic, students will:

• identify the different types of engineering components.

• discuss the different methods of sectioning.
• construct the sectional views of engineering assembled drawings in half and/or full sections.

Introduction
Cutting Plane

Cutting plane is a plane that imaginarily cuts the object to

reveal the internal features.
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Offset Section View

The view is made by passing the blended cutting plane
completely through the part.

Revolved Section
Placement of revolved section:
i. Superimposed to orthographic view.
ii. Break from orthographic view.

Removed Section
Sections are removed.

Aligned Section
Aligned sections use an angled cutting plane to pass through angled
features. The plane and feature are then imagined to be removed into the
original plane and the section projected from there.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with engineering drawing and define
each term. (1 mark each)
2. Differentiate between revolved and removed section. (2 marks)
 62

Pictorial Projection
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will:

• define isometric projection.

• construct pictorial spheres and hemispheres in isometric using
isometric scale.
• apply appropriate rendering and shading techniques in a project
work.

Introduction

Isometric projection is a method for visually representing three-dimensional

objects in two dimensions in technical and engineering drawings. It is an
axonometric projection in which the three coordinate axes appear equally
foreshortened and the angle between any two of them is 120 degrees.

Isometric Projection and Isometric Drawing

An isometric projection is a true representation of the isometric view of an object. An isometric view of an
object is created by rotating the object 45° about a vertical axis, then tilting the object (see below, in this
case, a cube) forward until the body diagonal (AB) appears as a point in the front view. The angle the cube
is tilted forward is 35° 16’. The three axes that meet at A and B form equal angles of 120° and are called
the isometric axes. Each edge of the cube is parallel to one of the isometric axes. Line parallel to one of
the legs of the isometric axis is an isometric line. Planes of the cube faces & all planes parallel to them are
isometric planes.

Figure 1: Shows the rotations of the object with respect to the projection plane result in isometric
projection.
 63

The forward tilt of the cube causes the edges and planes of the cube to become shortened as it is projected
onto the picture plane. The lengths of the projected lines are equal to the cosine of 35° 16’, or 0.81647
times the true length. In other words, the projected lengths are approximately 80% of the true lengths. A
drawing produced using a scale of 0.816 is called an isometric projection and is a true representation of the
object. However, if the drawing is produced using full scale, it is called an isometric drawing, which is the
same proportion as an isometric projection, but is larger by a factor of 1.23 to 1. Figure 1. Illustrates the
isometric projection and isometric drawing. Isometric drawings are almost always preferred over isometric
projection for engineering drawings, because they are easier to produce. An isometric drawing is an
axonometric pictorial drawing for which the angle between each axis equals 120° and the scale used is full
scale.

Figure 2: Shows the (a) isometric projection and (b) isometric drawing (or view) of a cuboid.

While drawing isometric projection, an Isometric scale is to be constructed for convenience and all the
measurements are to be taken from this scale. As shown in figure 5, isometric scale is produced by
positioning a regular scale at 45 ° to the horizontal and projecting lines vertically to a 30° line.

Figure 3: Illustrates the construction of an isometric scale.

i.e. isometric length = 82% (approximately)

Isometric axes can be positioned in a number of ways to create different views of the same object. Figure
4(a) is a regular isometric, in which the viewpoint is looking down on the top of the object. In a regular
isometric, the axes at 30° to the horizontal are drawn upward from the horizontal. In the reversed axis
isometric, as shown in figure 4(b), the viewpoint is looking up on the bottom of the object, and the 30°
axes are drawn downward from the horizontal. Figure 4(c) and (d) show the long axis isometric, where the
viewpoint is looking from the right or from the left of the object, and one axis is drawn at 60 ° to the
 64

horizontal. While drawing the Isometric view, first the view point will have to be decided for obtaining the
maximum technical information.

Figure 4: Shows different isometric axis depending on the direction of view point.

Isometric Axes and Non-isometric Axes

Figure 5(a) illustrates the isometric axes, non-isometric axes and isometric planes. In an isometric drawing,
true length distances can only be measured along isometric lines. i.e. lines that run parallel to any of the
isometric axes. Any line that does not run parallel to an isometric axis is called a non-isometric line. Non-
isometric lines include inclined and oblique lines and cannot be measured directly. Instead they must be
created by locating two end points. Figure 5(b) is an isometric drawing of a cube. The three faces of the
isometric cube are isometric planes, because they are parallel to the isometric surfaces formed by any two
adjacent isometric axes. Planes that are not parallel to any isometric plane are called non-isometric planes
as shown in figure 5(a).

Figure 5: Showing isometric axes, non-isometric axes and isometric planes.

Isometric View of Circular Shapes

The isometric view or isometric projection of a circle is an ellipse. It is obtained by using four-centre
method explained below and illustrated in Figure 6.

Four-Centre Method: First, enclose the given circle into a square ABCD. Draw rhombus ABCD as an
isometric view of the square. Join the farthest corners of the rhombus, i.e. A and C. Obtain midpoints 3 and
4 of sides CD and AD respectively. Locate points 1 and 2 at the intersection of AC with B–3 and B–4
respectively. Now with 1 as a centre and radius 1–3, draw a small arc 3–5. Draw another arc 4–6 with same
radius but 2 as a centre. With B as a centre and radius B–3, draw an arc 3–4. Draw another arc 5–6 with
same radius but with D as a centre.
 65

Figure 6: Method of obtaining the isometric views of a circle by four-centre method.

Accurate Method
STEPS

1. Draw the original circle with a compass and enclose it in a box. Add vertical and horizontal
guidelines
2. Number the vertical lines (these are called ordinate lines) as shown on the diagram opposite.
3. Draw the grid in isometric using a 30 degree set square, being careful to use the same
measurements as the original grid which surrounds the circle.
4. To draw the circle in isometric projection simply measure each distance down each vertical line on
the normal grid and transfer it to the isometric grid. On the diagrams opposite - distance 'x' on
guideline 3 has been transferred to the isometric grid. This is repeated for each of the guidelines 1,
2 and 4.
5. Continue around the isometric circle plotting transferring distances from the original grid to the
isometric grid - until the circle is complete.

Step 1. Step 2. Step 3.

Step 4.
 66

Step 5.

Isometric Projections of Spheres and Hemispheres

Steps to draw Isometric Projection of a Sphere to move together:

1. First draw Isometric of a square plate.

2. Locate its centre name it P.
3. From P draw vertical line upward length ‘r mm’ and locate centre of the sphere C.
4. C as centre with radius R draw circle.
 67

Freehand Sketching

The ability to generate ideas and put them on paper in the form of sketches is the basis of all good design.
The designer must be able to sketch and draw, initially using sketches to communicate their ideas and then
developing and refining these ideas before producing a final working drawing of the finished product.
Freehand sketching allows you to develop your own ideas and shows other people your thoughts and ideas
by sketching them on to paper.

Freehand sketching must be done without the use of a ruler or set square as this can break up the flow of
your ideas and prevent you from working quickly.
These ideas can be presented in several different ways. Your teacher will show you how to sketch
isometric views, oblique views, one and two-point perspective. Each of these pictorial views can be
used to communicate your ideas in a different style and effect. Remember that the only way to improve
your sketching is through practice. To improve your sketching you could try it in your spare time.

Three Dimensional Sketching

To show your ideas clearly you will need to sketch in three dimensions. This means you will show your
sketches as a solid rather than a flat two-dimensional shape.

A two-dimensional shape has only two measurements or dimensions:

LENGTH and HEIGHT

 68

A three-dimensional form has three measurements or dimensions:

LENGTH, HEIGHT AND BREADTH

Crating

To make freehand sketching easier crating is often used. A 3D crate is sketched which will contain the
object. In other words everything that is sketched will be inside this crate. Try following the method below
to produce a crate.

Tonal Scale

Shade and tone can be added to a design to give it a more realistic appearance.
Assuming the further a surface is from light the darker the shade will be on the
surface. It shows the effect of light falling on an object. The variations of light
and dark are called tone.
The easiest way to show tone is to use an HB pencil or coloured pencil. The
side, which is closest to the light source, will have light tone and the surface
the furthest distance away from the light will be the darkest.

To add tone you must be able to add different levels of tone. This can be done
using a tonal scale of five sides.
1 2 3 4 5
 69

When adding tone do not lean heavily with the pencil as this can damage the paper. You should darken the
tone by going over the surface each time until you reach the level of tone you require.

Thick & Thin Line Presentation

When you use crating, it is important to make the final object stand out from
your light outlines on the paper. A darker outline distinguishes the shape
from the construction lines.

Texture

All surfaces have surface texture. The texture of a material is the feel of a
surface. Some surfaces are rough some are smooth and so on.

Shown below are some examples of how an object can be rendered to make
it look more interesting:

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with isometric projections and define
each term. (1 mark each)
2. State the scale factor in which dimensions are reduced using the isometric
scale. (1 mark)
3. Describe how to draw circles in isometric. (4 marks)

Solar Panel Project:

Bucalevu Secondary School
 70

CHAPTER 4: APPLIED MECHANICS

Trusses
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, students will:

• identify the different types of trusses.

• use Bow’s notation.
• produce a free body diagram.
• construct vector diagram to determine the resultant and equilibrant forces.
• determine the unknown reactions of a truss with vertical loads graphically and analytically.
• calculate the reactions to a truss with dead loads.
• locate the position of the resultant and equilibrant.
• determine the nature and magnitude of each member of a truss graphically.

Introduction
Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and
structural analysis of buildings, bridges, and other structures. This
involves calculating the stresses and forces that act upon or arise
within a structure, and designing the structure to successfully resist
those forces and stresses. Resistance to dead loadings, especially
performance near resonant frequencies, which affect the overall
stability of a structure, are major design concerns.

In architecture and structural engineering, a truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units
constructed with straight
members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes.
External forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only
at the nodes and result in forces in the members which are either
tensile or compressive forces. Moments (torques) are explicitly
excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated
as revolute.
A planar truss is one where all the members and nodes lie within a
two dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes
extending into three dimensions.
 71

Types of Trusses

Truss Analysis

A truss is analyzed by using m = 2j - 3, where m is number of members, j represents the number of joints
and 3 represents the external support reactions.

Example:

m = 2j – 3
21 = 2(12) – 3
21 = 24 – 3
21 = 21
Since 21 = 21, we can say that the truss is
balanced and does not contain any redundant
member.
 72

Reaction of Members

Worked Example

Given is the space diagram of a loaded framework.

a. Draw a free body diagram.

b. Use Bow’s Notation to notate the spaces.
c. Draw the load line diagram using a suitable
load line scale.
d. Draw the link polygon.
e. Find the reactions at R L and R R .
f. Locate and state the position and magnitude of the resultant and equilibrant force.
g. Determine the magnitude and nature of the forces in each member.

Note: ‘I’ is omitted in Bow’s Notation to avoid confusion with numeral one.

Graphical

Draw a free body diagram as indicated in the space diagram or choose a suitable scale.

a. Letter the spaces clockwise to comply with Bow’s Notation.

b. Draw the load line abcd using a suitable load line scale. Join abcd to pole o.
c. Draw the beam funicular; starting from x draw ao parallel to ao of the polar polygon, bo parallel to bo,
and so progress to y. Join xy with eo. Draw eo parallel to eo.
d. Doing part d above gives the magnitude for R L and R R .
e. Extend ao and do to find the position of the resultant and equilibrant forces, the magnitude being the
total of all downward forces.
f. Draw the vector diagram, af parallel to AF, bg parallel to BG, cj parallel to CJ, and so on. The
completed vector diagram enables the stress of members to be read on the scale and the direction of
stress in the members to be determined by the arrow following round in clockwise direction in the
vector diagram. The magnitude of the stress in a member can be read from the length of the vector in
the vector diagram. The nature of the stress can be identified by the arrows indicating the internal
reaction forces.
 73

(The detailed vector diagrams show the direction of stress in the members.)

JOINT 2 JOINT 1
JOINT 4
FREE BODY
JOINT 3

33 37

Member AF BG CJ DK FG FE GH HE HJ JK KE
Force (kN) 87 78 85 100 18 77 29 52 42 26 87
Nature C C C C C T T T T C T
Note: T – Tension or Tie
C – Compression or Strut
R – Redundant (no force)
JOINT 1 JOINT 2

JOINT 3 (AFE) JOINT 4

 74

Analytical Solution

Find the reactions R L and R R analytically.

RL RR

(Note: We will not be finding the stress in each member using analytical method in this strand)

Since there are no angular loads acting on the truss, the reactions at the hinged end will only have the
vertical component similar to the roller end.

Since the truss is in equilibrium, we will use equation of moments to determine R R .

Moment = Force x perpendicular distance

+∑ MRL = 0 = (RL x 0) + (-F1 x d1) + (-F2 x d2) + (-F3 x d3) + (RR x d)

+∑ MRL = 0 = (RL x 0 m) + (-20 kN x 3m) + (-20 kN x 5 m) + (-30 kN x 7 m) + (RR x 10 m)

= (0) + (-60 kNm) + (-100 kNm) + (-210 kNm) + (10RR kNm)

= -370 + 10 RR

- 10 RR = - 370 + and – indicate the direction of force i.e. clockwise and

anticlockwise.
RR = 37 kN

Next we will use the equation of total forces upwards is

∑F = ∑F
equal to total forces downwards.

RL + RR = F1 + F2 + F3

RL = 33 kN
RL + 37 kN = 20 kN + 20 kN + 30 kN

RL = 20 + 20 + 30 - 37 RR = 37 kN

RL = 33 kN
 75

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Given:
The space diagram of a uniformly loaded simple truss.

Required:
Label bows notation in clockwise direction.

2m 2m 2m 2m

2. If the member in a roof truss exerts an external force as shown below then the member is said to be
in

A. tension.
B. shear stress.
C. equilibrium.
D. compression.

3. The diagram on the right shows a structure framework. The specific name given to this structural
form is

A. Box.
B. Warren.
C. Simple.
D. Beam.

4. Which member shows wrong direction?

A. GD B
B. BE
C. CF A
D. EA F C
E G

Bio-sand Filter Project:

Holy Cross College
 76

CHAPTER 5: Surveying & Navigation

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, students will:

• define terms associated with surveying and navigation.

• define fix, wreck, latitude and longitude with examples.
• demonstrate the correct knowledge and skills of surveying and navigation including traditional
methods and recognize its safety measures in real life.
• explore sustainable land and sea transportation – integration of renewable energy powered
transportations.

Introduction
Navigation may be considered as the art of directing the movement of a vehicle from one place to another.
It is an art practiced by all who travel but its development is rooted firmly in the fundamental laws of
science. In today’s context it can be formally defined as the determination of a strategy for estimating the
position of a vehicle along the flight path, given outputs from specified sensors. In the early days, when
man-made vehicles were surface bound (either on land or in the sea) and they seldom ventured far beyond
easily recognizable landmarks, the act of navigation could be carried out by humans using their senses to
determine direction distance, speed, and position. As vehicles became more and more sophisticated and
their field of operation expanded to realms beyond the perception of limited human senses sophisticated
navigation instruments became necessary. Instead of known landmarks these instruments used information
learned from celestial bodies, certain distant objects on the surface of the earth, and many other sources of
information to carry out the job of navigation.

The first western civilization known to have developed the art of navigation at sea were the Phoenicians,
about 4,000 years ago (c. 2000 B.C.E.). Phoenician sailors accomplished navigation by using primitive
charts and observations of the Sun and stars to determine directions.
Maps, compasses, astrolabes, and calipers are among the early tools used by ocean navigators. In the
modern era, these tools have been largely replaced by electronic and technological equivalents. Despite
these early beginnings, it would take many centuries before global navigation at sea became possible. Until
the fifteenth century, mariners were essentially coastal navigators. Sailing on the open sea was limited to
regions of predictable winds and currents, or where there was a wide continental shelf to follow. Farther
ventures were enabled by the development of scientifically and mathematically based methods and tools.

Early Navigational Tools

Determining latitude can be accomplished relatively easily using celestial navigation. In the Northern
Hemisphere, mariners could determine the latitude by measuring the altitude of the North Star above the
horizon. The angle in degrees was the latitude of the ship.

Mariner's Compass

One of the earliest human-made navigational tools used to aid mariners was the mariner's compass, which
was an early form of the magnetic compass. Early mariners thought the mariner's compass was often
inaccurate and inconsistent because they did not understand the concept of magnetic variation, which is the
angle between true north (geographic) and magnetic north. It was primarily used when the Sun was not
visible to help identify the direction from which the wind was blowing.
 77

Nautical Charts

During the mid-thirteenth century, mariners began realizing that maps could be helpful and began keeping
detailed records of their voyages. Thus, the first nautical charts were created. These first charts were not
very accurate, but were considered valuable and often kept secret from other mariners. There was no
latitude or longitude labeled on the charts, but between major ports there was a compass rose indicating
the direction to travel. (The term "compass rose" comes from the figure's compass points, which resemble
rose petals).

Astrolabe, Sextant, and Chip Log

Some of the early instruments used to assist sailors in

determining latitude were the cross-staff, astrolabe,
and quadrant. The astrolabe dates back to ancient
Greece, when it was used by astronomers to help tell
time, and was first used by mariners.

Tall ships keep alive the history of ocean navigation.

Today, ships such as these call to mind images of
merchant ships from long ago and pirates in their
heyday during the eighteenth century.

Around 1730, an English mathematician, John

Hadley (1682 – 1744), and an American inventor,
Thomas Godfrey (1704 – 1749), independently
invented the sextant. The sextant provided mariners
with a more accurate means of determining the angle between the horizon and the sun, moon, or stars in
order to calculate latitude.

During the sixteenth century, the chip log was invented and used as a crude speedometer. A line containing
knots at regular intervals and weighted to drag in the water was let out over the stern as the ship was
underway. A seaman would count the number of knots that went out over a specific period of time and the
ship's speed could then be calculated.

Longitude and the Chronometer

Throughout the history of navigation, latitude could be found relatively accurately using celestial
navigation. However, longitude could only be estimated, at best. This was because the measurement of
longitude is made by comparing the time-of-day difference between the mariner's starting location and new
location. Even some of the best clocks of the early eighteenth century could lose as much as 10 minutes per
day, which translated into a computational error of 242 kilometers (150 miles) or more.

In 1764, British clockmaker John Harrison (1693 – 1776) invented the seagoing chronometer. This
invention was the most important advance to marine navigation in the three millennia that open-ocean
mariners had been going to sea.

In 1779, British naval officer and explorer Captain James Cook (1728 – 1779) used Harrison's chronometer
to circumnavigate the globe. When he returned, his calculations of longitude based on the chronometer
proved correct to within 13 kilometers (8 miles). From information he gathered on his voyage, Cook
completed many detailed charts of the world that completely changed the nature of navigation.

In 1884, by international agreement, the Prime Meridian (located at 0° longitude) was established as the
meridian passing through Greenwich, England.
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Modern Navigation

The twentieth century brought important advances to marine navigation, with radio beacons, radar,
the gyroscopic compass, and the global positioning system (GPS). Most oceangoing vessels keep a sextant
onboard only in the case of an emergency.

Gyroscopic Compass

The gyroscopic compass (or gyro compass) was introduced in 1907. The primary benefit of the gyro
compass over a magnetic compass is that the gyro is unaffected by the Earth's, or the ship's, magnetic field,
and always points to true north.

Radar

The first practical radar (short for "radio detection and ranging")
system was produced in 1935. It was used to locate objects beyond
range of vision by projecting radio waves against them. This was, and
still is, very useful on ships to locate other ships and land when

Loran

The U.S. navigation system known as Long Range

Navigation (Loran) was developed between 1940 and 1943, and uses pulsed radio transmissions from so-
called "master" and "slave" stations to determine a ship's position. The accuracy of Loran is measured in
hundreds of meters, but only has limited coverage.

GPS

In the late twentieth century, the global positioning system (GPS) largely
replaced the Loran. GPS uses the same principle of time difference from
separate signals as Loran, but the signals come from satellites. As of
2002, the system consisted of 24 satellites, and gave the mariner a
position with accuracy of 9 meters (30 feet) or less.

Marine Navigation: Understanding Basic Maritime

Terminology

Ever wondered what the words sailors use mean? Every profession has
its own jargon; once understood, it is quite easy to remember. Read on to
know some basic seagoing terminology.
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Basic Directions

The diameter around which the earth rotates is “The Axis of Rotation" where it meets the earth forms the
Geographic North and South Poles. The direction in which any point on the earth’s surface is carried
(because of the earth’s anticlockwise rotation) is called East. The opposite direction is West.

Terms related with the Ship

ABEAM - At right angles to the navigating bridge of a ship.

AFT - Toward the stern of the ship
ABAFT - Between abeam and astern.
AHEAD - In a forward direction, i.e. in the direction of the bow (front) of the ship
ASTERN - In back (stern) of the ship, opposite of ahead.
PORT: The left of the ship, facing the bow or a harbour.
STARBOARD: The right side of the ship, facing the bow.

Basic Nautical Terms used when Sailing

AGROUND – Touching or stuck to the bottom of the seabed.

AIDS TO NAVIGATION – Artificial objects to supplement natural
landmarks used for navigation e.g.
buoys, lighthouses, etc. (see picture on the left).
ANCHORAGE – A place suitable for anchoring in relation to the wind, seas
and the sea bottom.
BEARING – The direction of an object relative to the heading of the ship.
Measured in degrees.
BUOY – An anchored float used for marking a position on the water, or for
mooring. (see picture on the left)
DRAFT – The depth of water a ship draws.
FATHOM – Six feet.
GIVE-WAY VESSEL – A term used to describe the vessel which must yield in meeting, crossing, or
overtaking situations.
SOUNDING – A measurement of the depth of water.
HEADING (HDG) – The direction in which the ship is pointing in any instant.
SPEED(S) – The speed of the ship through the water. Always recorded in knots (a sea mile is a knot, and
is 6080 feet)
CURRENT – Water in motion.
SET – The direction in which the current is flowing.
DRIFT – The speed (in knots) of the current.
COURSE – The direction in which a vessel is steered or is intended to be steered (direction through the
water).
FIX – The ship’s position, plotted on the chart by celestial or land bearings to a known point.

COURSE – is the intended horizontal direction of travel measured from 000 degrees clockwise through
360 degrees, where 000 is North.

The purpose of the COLREGS (Collision Regulations at Sea) is to cover, by international convention,
anti-collision rules in which any ship belonging to any nationality will follow at sea. Also called ROR
or Rules of the Road.
 80

Nautical Map Navigation

It requires an understanding of only a few navigation basics to begin navigating at sea such as the meaning
of basic nautical terms such as position, direction, distance, and depth to apply them to practical
navigation. This basic marine navigation tutorial will guide you on how to navigate at sea with charts and
increase your navigational skills.

Latitude and Longitude

Any position on the earth can be described by its latitude

and longitude which are the lines of an imaginary grid laid
on the earth's surface. Grid lines running east to west and
parallel to the equator are known as parallels of latitude
with the equator itself being 0° latitude. Lines that run
north to south, between the North and South Poles, are
known as meridians of longitude.

The prime meridian or 0° longitude, runs through the

Greenwich Royal Observatory in the United Kingdom from
which it takes its name. Measured by the angle that they
form at the centre of the earth , lines of latitude and
longitude are known by degrees (°), minutes ('), and tenths
of a minute there being 60' in 1°, and 360° in a circle.

The angle of latitude is measured from the centre of the earth along the prime meridian from the equator
(0°), ranging from 0° to 90° north and to the south. The angle of longitude is measured at the centre of the
earth along the equator from the prime or Greenwich meridian (0'), ranging from 0° to 180° east and to the
west.

Plotting and Piloting Lines of position

The modern chart shows us positions of many recognizable aids to navigation like churches and
lighthouses, which facilitate the approach to a coastal area. This concept originated from a chart by
Waghenaer and proved a milestone in the development of European cartography. This work was called
‘Spieghel der Zeevaerdt’ and included coastal profiles and tidal information much like the modern chart. It
enables us to find the angle between the North and for example an offshore platform, as seen from our
position.

Compass courses True courses

 81

Taking a bearing on this oil rig with a compass provides us with a compass course. This course first needs
correction for both variation and - via ship's heading - deviation before plotting a Line of Position (LOP)
in the chart as a true course. Our position is somewhere along this line.

Ranges

A precise way to obtain a LOP, and without a compass,

is to locate two aids to navigation in line. The map of
Laura Island on the right shows four examples of ranges,
each consisting of two aids to navigation.

Note that:

• More distance between the two landmarks enhances

accuracy.
• And less distance between the vessel and the closest aid
to navigation also enhances accuracy.

One of these four ranges consists of two lights that are

intentionally placed to provide a LOP. These pairs of
lights are called range lights or leading lights. In this
case they indicate the approach towards the marina and mark the channel between the dangerous rocks
along a true course of 50°. When looking towards any leading lights, the nearest one will be
lower. Therefore, in the middle of the channel both lights will appear vertically above each other.

Even when there are no man-made structures available, a range

can be found by using natural features such as coastlines and
islets. The example on the left shows a yacht that will avoid the
dangerous wreck as long as the islets don't overlap.

Position Fix
If two LOPs intersect we can construct a position fix: the ship's position on the earth.
Often however, a triangle occurs when a third LOP is added in the construction. This indicates that there
are errors involved in at least one of the bearings taken. In practice, we should consider each LOP as the
average bearing in a wider sector of for instance 10°.
 82

The optimum angular spread is 90° (two objects) or 120° (three objects). Moreover, bearings on distant
objects bring about more uncertainty in our position fix as the sector widens. Finally, if moving fast you
should not put any time between the bearings.
The next example features a nocturnal landfall on Willemsen Island - you are welcome to visit, but mind
the rocks. The position fix is plotted by taking bearings at two light-vessels as their lights appear over
the horizon. The variation is -1° and the ship's compass heading is 190°. Since we use our steering
compass for our bearings, we can use the same deviation table. That means a deviation of -4° with which
we can calculate (cc + var + dev = tc) the true courses.

Construction

Compass bearing on Will. N is

72°.
True course is 67°
Plot LOP with time & true
course

Compass bearing on Will. S is

173°
True course is 168°
Plot LOP with time & true
course

Draw an ellipse where the LOPs

intersect
Notate time and “Fix” alongside
Position is 32° 04,2' N , 24° 46,7'
E

Without a third LOP – forming the dreaded triangle - there is the false suggestion of accuracy. Yet,
instrument errors, erroneous identification of an aid to navigation, sloppy plotting, etc., can and will cause
navigation errors. Therefore, if close to e.g. rocks, you should assume to be at the worst possible position
(i.e. closest to the navigational hazard).

The lines plotted in the chart are always true courses and these are labeled with true courses by default;
the ‘T’ is optional. If labeled with the corresponding magnetic course or compass course add an ‘M’ or
‘C’, respectively.

Estimated Position

It is sometimes impossible to obtain more than one LOP at a time. To determine the ship's position with
one aid to navigation we can use a running fix. However if a running fix is not possible, we can determine
an estimated position.
 83

An estimated position is based upon whatever incomplete navigational information is available, such as a
single LOP, a series of depth measurements correlated to charted depths, or a visual observation of the
surroundings.

In the example on the right we see an estimated position constructed using a single LOP and the
ship's dead reckoning position (DR). This is done by drawing a line from the DR position at the time of
the LOP perpendicular to the LOP. An EP is denoted by a square instead of an ellipse.

Do not rely on an EP as much as a fix. The scale of reliability, from best to worst:

• Fix
• Running fix
• Estimated position
• DR position

Dead Reckoning

Dead reckoning is a technique to determine a ship's

approximate position by applying to the last established
charted position a vector or series of vectors representing
true courses and speed. This means that if we have an
earlier fix, we plot from that position our course and
“distance travelled since then” and deduce our current
position.

09:30 We start off with a Fix and plot a DR position for 15 minutes later.

09:45 Our estimation about our speed and course was correct, so we don't have to charge the DR
position.

10:00 and so on…

S = Speed through water (not over ground)

C = Course through water (not over ground)
T = True course (default)
M = Magnetic course for handheld compass (no deviation correction)
C = Compass course for steering compass (deviation correction)
Mark with an arrow, a semi-circle (circular arc) and “DR”.

Dead Reckoning is crucial since it provides an approximate position in the future. Each time a fix or
running fix is plotted, a vector representing the ordered course and speed originate from it.
 84

The direction of this course line represents the ship's course, and the length represents the distance one
would expect the ship to travel in a given time. This extrapolation is used as a safety precaution: a
predicted DR position that will place the ship in water 1 metre deep should raise an eyebrow.
In the example above the true courses are plotted in the chart, and to assist the helmsman these course lines
are labeled with the corresponding compass courses.

Guidelines for Dead Reckoning:

• Plot a new course line from each new fix or running fix (single LOP).
• Never draw a new course line from an EP.
• Plot a DR position every time course or speed changes.
• Plot a corrected DR position if the predicted course line proofed wrong, and continue from there.

Running Fix

Under some circumstances, such as low visibility, only one line of position can be obtained at a time. In
this event, a line of position obtained at an earlier time may be advanced to the time of the later LOP.
These two LOPs should not be parallel to each other; remember that the optimal angular spread is 90°. The
position obtained is termed a running fix because the ship has “run” a certain distance during the time
interval between the two LOPs.

09:16 We obtain a single LOP on LANBY 1 and plot

a corresponding (same time) dead reckoning
position. The estimated position is constructed
by drawing the shortest line between the DR
and the LOP: perpendicular.

09:26 No LOPs at all. We tack and plot a DR position.

09:34 We obtain a LOP on LANBY 2. To use the first

LOP we advance it over a construction line
between the two corresponding DR positions.
We use both its direction & distance.

To use the LOP obtained at an earlier time, we must advance it to the time of the second LOP. This is done
by using the dead reckoning plot. First, we measure the distance between the two DR positions and draw
a construction line, which is parallel to a line connecting the two DR positions.
Note that if there are no intervening course changes between the two DR positions, it's easiest just to use
the course line itself as the construction line.
Now, using the parallel rulers we advance the first LOP along this construction line over the distance we
measured. The intersection is our RFix.
If there is an intervening course change, it appears to make our problem harder. Not so! The only DR
positions that matter are the two corresponding with the LOPs.

Guidelines for advancing a LOP:

• The distance: equal to the distance between the two corresponding DR positions.
• The direction: equal to the direction between the two corresponding DR positions.
• Draw the advanced LOP with a dotted line and mark with both times.
• Label the Running Fix with an ellipse and "RFix" without underlining.
 85

Danger Bearing

Like the dead reckoning positioning, the danger bearing is an important tool to keep the ship out of harm's
way. First, the navigator identifies the limits of safe, navigable water and determines a bearing to for
instance a major light. This bearing is marked as “No More Than” (NMT) or “No Less Than” (NLT),
depending on which side is safe. Hatching is included on the side that
is hazardous, along with its compass bearing.
In the example on the right a true course of 325° is plotted (5°
variation), marked with the magnetic course of 320°, practical for a
handheld compass that requires no deviation correction.
Were we see that light at 350° magnetic - which is definitely “More
Than” - the rocks and wreck would be between us and the major light.
A possible cause could be a (tidal) stream from east to west. When
a distance is used instead of a direction, a danger range is plotted
much the same way as the danger bearing.

Turn bearing

The Turn bearing - like the danger bearing - is constructed in the chart
in advance. It should be used as a means of anticipation for sailing out
of safe waters (again like the danger bearing and dead reckoning). The turn bearing is taken on an
appropriate aid to navigation and is marked “TB”. As you pass the object its bearing will slowly change.
When it reaches the turn bearing turn the vessel on her new course.
This type of bearing is also used for selecting an anchorage position or diving position.

International Notation

International notation conventions for plotting in the chart

Fix LOP

Running Fix LOP advanced

Estimated Position Course & Speed

Dead Reckoning Set & Drift

Electronic Fix (GPS)

Electronic Fix (Radar)

Note, that a few countries use an alternative symbol

 86

Plotting should be done with a soft pencil. Moreover, avoid drawing lines through the chart symbols. This
is to prevent damage to the chart when you have to erase the construction.

Glossary

Line of Position (LOP) – The locus of points along which a ship's position must lie. A minimum of two
LOPs are necessary to establish a fix. It is standard practice to use at least three
LOPs when obtaining a fix, to guard against the possibility of and, in some
cases, remove ambiguity.
Transit fix – The method of lining up charted objects to obtain an LOP.
Leading lights or Range lights – A pair of lights or day marks deliberately placed to mark a narrow
channel.
Position fix – The intersection of various LOPs.
Cross bearing – The use of LOPs of several navigational aids to obtain a position fix. Remember to use an
optimal angular spread.
Running fix – The use of an advanced LOP. Make sure to use only the corresponding DR positions. Also
don't use the EP for advancing the first LOP.
Dead reckoning – Determining a position by plotting courses and speeds from a known position. It is also
used to predict when lights become visible or to determine the set and rate of a current.
Estimated position – Combine a corresponding DR position with a single LOP to get an EP position.
Snellius construction – Another way to combine three compass bearings to obtain a position fix. The
advantage over a cross bearing is that both magnetic variation and deviation don't
need to be taken into account.
Course (C) – The direction in which a vessel is steered or is intended to be steered (direction through the
water).
Speed (S) – The speed of the boat through the water.
Set (SET) – The direction in which the current is flowing (see chapters 6, 7 and 8).
Drift (DFT) – The speed (in knots) of the current (see chapters 6, 7 and 8).
Default heading is True course (M = magnetic, C = compass).
Default time is 24 hour clock ship time else UTC.

Course Plotting
Course plotting or fixing your course is of the most basic and important of all skills for a cruising sailor.
What follows is an outline of the essential elements of fixes and some special types.

Dead Reckoning

The term 'dead reckoning' takes its name from 'deduced reckoning' (abbreviated DR). In other words,
you are deducing your position from several pieces of information and plotting it on a chart.
So, the simplest method to find your way from A to B is to:

• mark the positions of A and B on the chart draw a line from A to B.

• measure the direction of this line using a parallel ruler or Breton-style Plotter and the compass rose.
• apply the corrections to get true compass direction (variation and deviation).
• steer in that direction using the ship’s magnetic compass.

The ship’s log or knot meter will tell you the distance in nautical miles that you have travelled through the
water. Take note of the log reading when you are at A, or set it to zero and the log reading will then tell
you how far you have travelled from A towards B. Because the Great Lakes are freshwater bodies, we can
 87

discount the effects of tides and tidal streams. However, we can account for LEEWAY as shown below.
After an appropriate period of time (say 30 minutes if you are making a steady x knots), measure off the
logged distance on the side of the chart with your dividers. Then, mark your position on the line from A to
B. This process is known as Dead Reckoning.
Your DR position is shown on a chart as a semi-circle with a dot on the course line, marked with the
initials DR and the time in 24 hour format.

Leeway

Leeway is defined as the difference in degrees between the heading of the boat and the reciprocal of the
wake. Simply put, in a strong breeze, in addition to forward movement, there is a sideways movement of
the boat in the water as the wind pushes it.
Leeway can be easily determined by comparing the boats heading with the reciprocal measurement of the
wake. Note the boats heading in magnetic degrees. Using the hand-bearing compass, take the bearing of
the wake. Convert that to its reciprocal (or opposite) by adding or subtracting 180°. Compare the two. The
difference is your leeway.
For example:
• boat heading = 100°
• wake bearing = 270°
• wake reciprocal = 90°
• leeway = 100° - 90° = 10°

Account for leeway by adjusting your DR course line. Make sure you adjust in the correct direction. Some
navigators find it useful to draw a wind arrow on their chart to ensure that it’s clear which way the boat is
being blown off course.

Fixes

The first type of fix is a visual fix. This is taken with a hand-bearing compass. Take a sight on a charted
landmark such as a water tower or a spire. Note the bearing. Convert the compass bearing to a true bearing.
Using a parallel ruler, trace that bearing on a compass rose on the chart. Then 'walk' or 'transfer' the bearing
to the charted landmark.
Now, take another sighting on another landmark or charted object. Try to have a good angle of intersection
– narrow or tight angles are not as accurate. Repeat the process of converting the compass bearing to true
and then drawing it on your chart. Your position should be the intersection of those 2 headings. (I say
'should be' because accuracy is important. Double-check all your calculations.)
To enhance the accuracy of your fix, take a third sighting, repeating the process. Don't be surprised if the
lines don't intersect exactly – they likely won't. Instead, they will likely create what’s called a 'cocked hat'
and you are somewhere inside that triangle. Prudence would dictate that you mark your position within the
cocked hat on the side closest to any hazard.
A fix is marked on a chart with a dot surrounded by a circle. The time of the fix (in 24 hour notation) and
log reading are noted adjacent to the fix.

Running Fix

If you cannot identify two charted landmarks, it is possible to locate your position by taking 2 fixes on the
same landmark. Plot your course line (with True bearing noted above the line and speed noted below).
Take your first bearing (again, in True degrees) and label with bearing and speed. Maintain your course
and heading for a length of time. Watch the landmark as the angle to it 'opens' up. When there is a
significant change in angle, take another fix.
Determine the DR of the 2nd fix and plot it. Label it with a dot inside a half circle with the time and the
notation DR. Now, using parallel rules, advance the first bearing line forward to the DR position you
plotted. The running fix (marked as RFIX) is the point where advanced first bearing intersects second
bearing.
 88

Bearings and Contours

An alternative when fixes on three suitable landmarks is not possible then use a combination of a bearing
line and a contour. Here, you would use your depth sounder. Make sure you know whether your depth
sounder is set to measure from keel or waterline. By plotting a bearing and seeing where it intersects a
known contour line, you can fix your position.

Transit Lines

When 2 objects line up, they are described as being 'in transit'. A line connecting them is referred to as a
transit. The object in the foreground will be lower than the one behind. Often a transit is printed on the
chart.
For example, entering into Port Colborne on harbour, there is a charted transit line of 015.5 degrees. In
other circumstances, you create your transit line when there are two objects that you can line up – a church
spire and a marker buoy for example. Transit lines can be combined with a contour line to determine a fix.

Distance Off

If you can determine your distance off i.e. the distance between your vessel and a landmark which is
marked on the chart, you can draw an arc of a circle using the landmark as the centre – this is a position
line. Take a bearing on the landmark – chimney, lighthouse, tower – anything with a marked height noted.
Draw the bearing line. Next, using the landmark as the centre point and use your compass to draw a semi-
circle with a radius that matches the distance from your boat to the landmark.
A nautical almanac will have a table for distance off when rising or dipping. (There is one on
the RESOURCES page) You need to estimate the height of your own eye above sea level and the height
of the light which will be marked on the chart.
This can work very well with lighthouses at night because lighthouses are always charted, their light
characteristics are noted and the rising and dipping (called the 'loom') of a light can be seen on clear nights.
At night, if you observe carefully, you will be able to see the light just as it rises above the horizon and/or
see the loom of the light as it dips below the horizon.

Sectored Lights

Sectored lights are lights that display more than one colour. They are arranged so that a different colour is
seen depending on where in the sector you are situated. The sectors are marked on the chart. When you see
the light as one colour you know you are in that sector and when the light changes to another colour, you
have moved into the sector for that light. An example would be the RWG (Red White Green) sectored light
marking the entrance to Edgewater Basin at the west end of Cleveland harbor.

Clearing Lines

Sometimes when navigating, you don’t need to know exactly where you are. It may be enough to know
approximately where you are, and to be sure that you are clear of dangers. If you can draw a single position
line, you can tell at a glance which side you are on to keep out of danger. This line is known as a clearing
line. You can use transits, bearings on landmarks or aids to navigation to construct bearing lines.
One observation can tell you if you are safe or not, which can be far quicker than plotting your position. As
a memory aid, you can note a clearing line bearing and put a green '+' sign on the side you want to stay on
so you know at a glance if you are on the right side of it.
You can also use depth contours to either avoid shallow water or to follow a route for example in heavy
fog.
 89

DISTANCE – SPEED – TIME CALCULATOR

This handy little diagram can help you quickly calculate for the unknown
variable.
The horizontal line means divide – i.e. D divided by S or D divided by T.
The vertical line means multiply – i.e. S times T.
Just insert the values you have and solve for the unknown.
For example, if your Distance = 5 nm and your time to cover it was 2.5 hours
then D/T = S [5/2.5 = 2 knots]
If your Speed = 3 knots and your Distance is 7 nm then D/S = T [7/3 = 2.3 hours]

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a word list of terms associated with course plotting and define
each term. (1 mark each)
2. How many metres in one nautical mile? (1 mark)
3. Name any two bearings used in course plotting for checking the
ship’s position and define each one. (4 marks)

Surveying
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will:

• define leveling.
• draw the cross section of land profiles in a real life
situation.
• recognize the importance of quantity surveying.

Introduction
Leveling is the art of determining the relative elevations of different objects or points on the earth's surface.
This is done by taking measurements in the vertical plane. Hence, this branch of surveying deals with
measurements in vertical planes. For the execution of civil engineering works such as major buildings,
highways, dams, canals, water supply and sanitary schemes, it is necessary to determine elevations of
different points along the alignments of a proposed project for the design and execution of the project.
Success of the projects depends upon accurate determination of elevations of the ground control points as
well as control points of the structures.

Objective of Surveying

The aim of surveying is to prepare a plan or map to show the relative positions of the objects on the surface
of the earth. The map is drawn to some suitable scale. It shows the natural features of a country such as
towns, villages, roads, railways, rivers, etc. Maps may also include details of different engineering works,
such as roads, railways, irrigation, canals, etc.
 90

Uses of Surveying

• Surveying may be used for the following various applications.

• To prepare a topographical map this shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns, forests etc. of
a country.
• To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses, and other properties.
• To prepare an engineering map showing details of engineering works such as roads, railways,
reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
• To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with different parts of a
country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points important for the defense of a
country.
• To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of reservoir and to find the best possible route
for roads, railways, etc.
• To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources exist.
• To prepare an archeological map including places where ancient relics exist.

A surveying instrument is an instrument for

measuring the positional relationship between two
points on a terrain. An instrument that measures
differences in elevation (a leveling instrument) is
known as a level, while an instrument that measures
horizontal and vertical angles (an angular-
measurement instrument) is known as a theodolite.
An enhanced version of the theodolite is the ‘total
station’ which can measure angles and distance.

A level consists of a telescope for looking at a

leveling rod, which is a kind of ruler, and a pedestal
for rotating the telescope horizontally. When the
difference in elevation between points A and B is
measured, as shown in the diagram, the method for
using the level to perform the measurement is as
follows:

1. The level is positioned between points A and

B.
2. The level is used to take a reading from the
scale on the leveling rod at point A. This
reading is designated as the value a and is referred to as the ‘backsight’.
3. The level is pointed at the leveling rod at point B, and a reading is taken from its scale. This reading
is designated as the value b and is referred to as the ‘foresight’.
4. The value b is subtracted from the value a to obtain the difference in elevation between points A and
B.

When the distance between the two points being surveyed is large, the operation shown above is repeated.
 91

Measurement using a level

When the distance between the two points is large

Definition of basic terms used in leveling:

Level surface: Any surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth is called level surface and the line
drawn on level surface is known as level line.
Horizontal surface: Any surface tangential to level surface at a given point is called – Horizontal surface
at point. Hence horizontal line is at right angles to plumb line.
Vertical surface: It is the line connecting the point and centre of earth. Vertical & horizontal line is
normal to each other.
Datum: The point or the surface with respect to which levels of other points or planes are calculated is
called – Datum or surface.
Mean sea level (MSL): Mean sea level is the average height of sea of all stages of tides. Any particular
place is derived by averaging over a long period of 19 years. In India the mean’s sea level used is that at
Karachi (Pakistan). In all important survey this is taken as datum.
Reduced level: Levels of various points are taken as heights above the datum surface are known as –
Reduced level.
Bench mark: Bench mark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose Elevation w.r.t some
assumed datum is known.

There are four types of bench mark:

1. G.T.S (Great Trigonometry Survey)

2. Permanent bench mark
3. Arbitrary bench mark.
4. Temporary bench mark

Suppose A and B are two points and the level is set up at approximately midway between them, suppose at
O. After the instrument is correctly leveled, the telescope is directed toward the staff held vertically on A
and focused. Reading at which Horizontal hair of the diaphragm appears to cut the staff is taken. Ensure
that bubble of the level is in center. Then the staff is held vertically on B. Again reading is taken at point B
from point O. Let the respective readings on A and B be 2.350 and 3.315 respectively. The difference
between these readings gives the difference of level between A and B which is equal to 3.315 m – 2.350 m
= 0.965 m

If the reduced level of A is 100 m, then we can find the reduced level of B.

Height of instrument at O = R.L of A + 2.350 m

Height of instrument at O = 100 m + 2.350 m = 102.350 m
R.L of B = 102.350 m – 3.315 m = 99.035 m
 92

Note:
1. When the point is lower, the staff reading is greater. When the point is higher, the staff reading is
smaller.
2. The bubble must be in center while the readings are being taken.
3. If the true difference of level between two points is required, then level must be set up
exactly midway between them.

Methods of Leveling
Leveling methods are subdivided into
two major categories: DIRECT and INDIRECT. Direct leveling describes the method of measurin
g vertical distance (difference in elevation) directly with the use of precise or semi-
precise leveling instruments. Indirect leveling methods, on the other hand, apply to measuring vertic
al distances indirectly or by computation. Unlike direct leveling operations, indirect leveling
operations do not depend on lines of sight or inter-
visibility of points or stations. Some of the surveying instruments commonly used for indirect
leveling methods are the transit and theodolite.

Direct Leveling

This method of leveling uses the measured vertical distance to carry elevation from a known point to an
unknown point. Direct leveling is the most precise method of determining elevation and yields accuracies
of third or higher orders. When this method is specified for lower accuracy surveys, direct leveling
is sometimes referred to as spirit or fly levels. Fly levels are leveling operations used to rerun original
levels to make sure that no mistake has been made. Fly levels use a shorter route and smaller number of
turning points than the original survey. Let’s take a look at some of the processes involving direct leveling.

Differential Leveling

This method is used in order to find the difference between two points which are far apart or if the
difference in elevation between them is too great or if there are obstacles in between them.

In such case, it is necessary to set up level in several positions and to work in series of stages.
The method of simple leveling is applied on every stage. It is also known as compound or continuous
leveling.

Figure 15
 93

Figure 16: Differential Leveling

Differential leveling (also called direct leveling) is generally used in determining elevations of points to
establish a chain or network of BMs for future use. It requires a series of instrument setups along the
survey route; and for setup, a horizontal line of sight is established, using a sensitive level.

As shown in Figures 15 and16, the basic procedure used to determine elevations in a differential leveling
operation is the same as previously discussed.

• First, take a BS on a rod held on a point of known elevation (KE).

• Then, add the BS reading to the known elevation to determine the HI.
• Next, take an FS on a rod held at the point of unknown elevation (UKE).
• Finally, subtract the FS reading from the HI to establish the elevation of the new point.

Profile Leveling

Profile leveling is a method of surveying that has been carried out along the central line of a track of land
on which a linear engineering work is to be constructed/ laid. The operations involved in determining the
elevation of ground surface at small spatial interval along a line is called profile leveling. The route along
which a profile is run may be single straight line, as in case of a short sidewalk; a broken line, as in the
case of a transmission line or sewer; or a series of straight lines connected by curves, as in case of a
railroad, highway or canal.
 94

In surveying, a PROFILE is a vertical section of the earth measured along a predetermined or

fixed line. In practice, profiles are a series of ground elevations determined by differential leveling
or other methods that, when plotted along some line such as the center line of a road, can be used to
determine the final grade or alignment of the road, railroad or sewer line. Profiles are also used to compute
volumes of earthwork such as determining the depth of fill or cut to bring an existing surface up to or down
to the grade elevation required for a highway.

Stations

The line along which the profile is to be run is to be marked on the ground before taking any observation.
Stakes are usually set at some regular interval which depends on the topography, accuracy required, nature
of work, scale of plotting, etc. It is usually taken to be 10 meter. In addition, stakes are placed at locations
where marked changes in slope occur; a change in direction occurs; at critical points like culverts, bridges
and other features crossing the alignment. The beginning station of profile leveling is termed as 0 + 00.
Points at multiples of 100 m from this point are termed as full stations. Intermediate points are designated
as pluses. For example, a point that is 153.25 m from the beginning point of the survey is station 1 + 53.25
i.e. the point is 53.25 m beyond the first full station.
 95

Procedure

In carrying out profile leveling, a level is placed at a convenient location (say I 1 ) not necessarily along the
line of observation (Figure below). The instrument is to be positioned in such a way that first backsight can
be taken clearly on a B.M. Then, observations are taken at regular intervals (say at 1, 2, 3 and 4) along the
central line and foresight to a properly selected turning point (say TP 1 ). The instrument is then re-
positioned to some other convenient location (say I 2 ). After proper adjustment of the instrument,
observations are started from TP 1 and then at regular intervals (say at 5, 6, etc.) terminating at another
turning point, say TP 2 . Staff readings are also taken at salient points where marked changes in slope occur,
such as that at X.

The distances as well as direction of lines are also measured.

Figure 1

Field Note Book

The notes of profile leveling are recorded in a level note book where backsights, intermediate sights and
foresights are placed in independent columns. The distances of points as well as direction of lines are also
noted in separate columns (Table 1).

In case of profile leveling as shown in Table 1, for instrument position at l 1 , the first backsight (B.S) is
taken at B.M and the reading of 3.005 m is placed in its column in the row of station A (Table 1). Then
intermediate sights 2.285 m, 1.560 m, 1.785 m and 2.105 m respectively at stakes 1, 2, 3 and 4 are placed
in the corresponding row. The first foresight 3.105m taken at station B is placed in its row. From changed
instrument location l 2 , a backsight 2.875 m is taken at B and it is entered in the B.S. column in the row of
B. Thus, at station B, both backsight and foresight readings are entered. The intermediate sights 3.465 m,
3.955 m, 3.120 m, 3.015 m, 2.580 m, 1.955 m respectively at stakes 5, X, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are placed in their
corresponding row. The foresight 1.465 m taken at station C is placed in its row.

Calculation of Reduced Level

Reduction of levels can be done either by height of instrument method or by rise and fall method. In Table
1, computations have been carried out by both the methods and subsequently their checks are done.
 96

Table 1: Field book for Reduction of Level

Difference in
Staff Reading (m)
Pegs Distance(m) Direction Elevation (m) H.I (m) R.L(m) Remarks
B.S I.S F.S Rise Fall
A 3.005 108.620 105.615 B.M.
1 0 + 00 2.285 0.720 106.335
2 0 + 10 1.560 0.725 107.060
3 0 + 20 1.785 0.225 106.835
4 0 + 30 2.105 0.320 106.515
B 0 + 40 2.875 3.105 1.000 108.390 105.515 C.P
5 0 + 50 3.465 0.590 104.925
X 0 + 53.35 3.955 0.490 104.435
6 0 + 60 3.120 0.835 105.270
7 0 + 70 3.015 0.105 105.375
8 0 + 80 2.580 0.435 105.810
9 0 + 90 1.955 0.625 106.435
C 1 + 00 1.465 0.490 106.925

S 5.880 4.570 3.935 2.625

S B.S. - S F.S. = 5.880 – 4.570 = 1.310 m
S Rise- S Fall = 3.935 – 2.625 = 1.310 m
Last R.L. - First R.L.= 106.925 - 105.615 = 1.310 m

Plotting of Profile

Plotting of profile leveling provides a graphical representation of the ground points on a longitudinal
section along the alignment. It is being used to determine the depth of cutting or filling on the proposed
gradient (for highways, railways, canals, etc.), to study grade crossing problems, to select appropriate
grade, to locate depth of sewer, tunnels etc. In this, a datum line is drawn along which distance of the
stakes are marked and
reduced levels are plotted
along vertical lines
drawn on the marked
points. Segmented
straight lines joining the
reduced level points
represent the longitudinal
profile of the ground
surface. Profile is
generally drawn so that
the vertical scale is much
larger than the horizontal
scale in order to
accentuate the differences of elevations.
Figure 1: Profile Leveling

Figure 2 shows the longitudinal section of the profile leveling (Figure1). In this, the datum and ground
lines are drawn in black and the ordinates in blue. The value of the datum line is given and the reduced
levels are written against ordinates.
 97

Figure 2: Profile of Longitudinal

Cross Sectioning

In many projects, terrain information transverse to the longitudinal section (through profile leveling) is also
required such as for highways, railways, canals etc. In those cases, surveying is carried out at right angle to
the central line, generally, at regular interval is being carried out and is termed as cross- sectioning. If, for
any reason, a cross-section is run in any other direction, the angle with the centre line is required to be
noted. The observations are then recorded as being to the left or right of the centre line. The notes of the
readings are maintained as shown in Table 2 for taking a cross-section along the stake point 4. Reduction
of levels, Plotting etc. can be done as in case of profile leveling. A plotting of the cross section at stake 4 is
as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Cross-section along Stake 4 (0 + 40m)

 98

Table 2: Field Book for Reduction of Level

Difference in
Staff reading (m)
Pegs Distance(m) Direction elevation (m) H.I (m) R.L (m) Remark
B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise (m) Fall (m)
A 3.005 108.620 105.615 B.M.
:
4 0+30 2.105 0.320 106.515 0m
1.850 106.770 2m left
1.725 106.895 4m left
1.680 106.940 6m left
1.985 106.635 2m right
1.875 106.745 4m right
1.780 106.840 6m right
B 0+40 2.875 3.105 1.000 108.390 105.515 T.P. 1
:

Carrying Out a Level Traverse

To determine the difference in level between points on the surface of the ground a 'series' of levels will
need to be carried out; this is called a level traverse or level run.

There are two method of leveling:

1. Rise & Fall method and

2. Height of collimation (height of instrument) methods

Click the link to see the animated rise and fall methods then click next for the height of collimation
method. Please note when the shifting of the staff or level can be done using the rise and fall method.

Leveling or Field Procedures

The leveling or field procedure that should be followed is shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1
 99

Procedure:

1. Set up the leveling instrument at Level position 1.

2. Hold the staff on the Datum (RL + 50 m) and take a reading. This will be a backsight because it is
the first staff reading after the leveling instrument has been set up.
3. Move the staff to A and take a reading. This will be an intermediate sight.
4. Move the staff to B and take a reading. This also will be an intermediate sight.
5. Move the staff to C and take a reading. This will be another intermediate sight.
6. Move the staff to D and take a reading. This will be a foresight; because after this reading the level
will be moved. (A change plate should be placed on the ground to maintain the same level.)
7. The distance between the stations should be measured and recorded in the field book (see Table 1)
8. Set up the level at Level position 2 and leave the staff at D on the change plate. Turn the staff so
that it faces the level and take a reading. This will be a backsight.
9. Move the staff to E and take a reading. This will be an intermediate sight.
10. Move the staff to F and take a reading. This will be a foresight; because after taking this reading
the level will be moved.
11. Now move the level to Leveling position 3 and leave the staff at F on the change plate.

Now repeat the steps described in 8 to 10 until you finished at point J.

Field Procedures for Leveling

All staff readings should be recorded in the field book. To eliminate errors resulting from any line of sight
(or collimation) backsights and foresights should be equal in distance. Length of sight should be kept less
than 100 metres. Always commence and finish a level run on a known datum or benchmark and close the
level traverse; this enables the level run to be checked.

Booking Levels

There are two main methods of booking levels:

• rise and fall method
• height of collimation method

Table 1: Rise & Fall Method

Back- Inter- Fore- Reduced
Rise Fall Distance Remarks
sight mediate sight level
2.554 50.00 0 Datum RL+50 m

1.783 0.771 50.771 14.990 A

0.926 0.857 51.628 29.105 B

1.963 1.037 50591 48.490 C

1.305 3.587 1.624 48.967 63.540 D / change point 1
1.432 0.127 48.840 87.665 E
3.250 0.573 0.859 49.699 102.050 F / change point 2
1.925 1.325 51.024 113.285 G
3.015 0.496 1.429 52.453 128.345 H / change point 3
0.780 2.235 54.688 150.460 J
Sum of B-sight & F-sight,
10.124 5.436 7.476 2.788 54.688
Sum of Rise & Fall
-5.436 -2.788 -50.000 Take smaller from greater

4.688 4.688 4.688 Difference should be equal

 100

The millimeter reading may be taken by estimation to an accuracy of 0.005 metres or even less.

1. Backsight, intermediate sight and forsight readings are entered in the appropriate columns on
different lines. However, as shown in the table above backsights and foresights are place on the
same line if you change the level instrument.
2. The first reduced level is the height of the datum, benchmark or R.L.
3. If an intermediate sight or foresight is smaller than the immediately preceding staff reading then
the difference between the two readings is place in the rise column.
4. If an intermediate sight or foresight is larger than the immediately preceding staff reading then the
difference between the two readings is place in the fall column.
5. A rise is added to the preceding reduced level (RL) and a fall is subtracted from the preceding RL.

Arithmetic Checks

While all arithmetic calculations can be checked there is no assurance that errors in the field procedure will
be picked up. The arithmetic check proves only that the rise and fall is correctly recorded in the appropriate
rise & fall columns. To check the field procedure for errors the level traverse must be closed. It is prudent
to let another student check your reading to avoid a repetition of the level run.
If the arithmetic calculations are correct, the difference between the sum of the backsights and the sum of
the foresights will equal:
• the difference between the sum of the rises and the sum of the falls, and
• the difference between the first and the final R.L. or vice versa.
(there are no arithmetic checks made on the intermediate sight calculations. Make sure you read
them carefully)

Table 2: Height of collimation method (height of instrument)

Back- Inter- Fore- Height of Reduced
Distance Remarks
sight mediate sight collimation level
2.554 52.554 50.00 0 Datum RL+50 m
1.783 50.771 14.990 A

0.926 51.628 29.105 B

1.963 50591 48.490 C
1.305 3.587 50.272 48.967 63.540 D / change point 1
1.432 48.840 87.665 E
3.250 0.573 52.949 49.699 102.050 F / change point 2
1.925 51.024 113.285 G
3.015 0.496 55.468 52.453 128.345 H / change point 3
0.780 54.688 150.460 J
Sum of B-sight & F-sight,
10.124 5.436 54.688 Difference between RL's

-5.436 -50.000 Take smaller from greater

4.688 4.688 Difference should be equal

1. Booking is the same as the rise and fall method for back-, intermediate- and foresights. There are
no rise or fall columns, but instead a height of collimation column.
2. The first backsight reading (staff on datum, benchmark or RL) is added to the first RL giving the
height of collimation.
 101

3. The next staff reading is entered in the appropriate column but on a new line. The RL for the
station is found by subtracting the staff reading from the height of collimation
4. The height of collimation changes only when the level is moved to a new position. The new height
of collimation is found by adding the backsight to the RL at the change point.
5. Please note there is no check on the accuracy of intermediate RL's and errors could go undetected.

The rise and fall method may take a bit longer to complete, but a check on entries in all columns is carried
out. The RL's are easier to calculate with the height of collimation method, but errors of intermediate RL's
can go undetected. For this reason students should use the rise and fall method for all leveling exercises.

Closed and Open Traverse

Always commence and finish a run

on a datum, benchmark or known RL.
This is what is known as a closed
level traverse, and will enable you to
check the level run.

Closed Level Traverse

Series of level runs from a

known Datum or RL to a
known Datum or RL.

Closed Loop Level Traverse

Series of level runs from a

known Datum or RL back to
the known Datum or RL.
 102

Open Level Traverse

Series of level runs from a known Datum or RL. This must be avoided because there are no checks on
misreading.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Make a list of all terms associated with Leveling and define each one. (1 mark each)
2. Define Quantity Surveying. (1 mark)
3. Differentiate between Backsight reading and Foresight reading. (2 marks)
4. Which readings have their differences calculated for the arithmetic check of
entries in the leveling field book. (3 marks)

Resort Project:
MGM High School
 103

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bedford, J.R. (1971). Metal Craft Theory and Practice.

Bradley. G. James (1989) Advanced Technical Graphics, Graphics For Secondary Schools.
DJ Toye & Guy-2nd edition, Understanding Technical Drawing-Book 2.
E. Jackson, M.Coll. H (1975) “Advance Level Technical Drawing, Third Edition, Set in Monophoto Times
New Romans, Produced by Longman Group (FE) Ltd, Hong Kong.
Hopkins. M. S, (1993) Problem Solving by Designs. Accessed 19 October 2010 from
Rod C Wilson(1991), 3rd ed., Basic Technical Drawing. Macmillan.
S. Lal (2000), Form 6 Technical Drawing Workbook. Suva Book Shop.
S. Manueli (1990) “Introduction To Technology A, Course Book, School of Pure and Applied Science, the
University of the South Pacific, Suva.
Schlenker, B. R., INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL SCIENCE SI EDITION, 1974, Jacaranda Wiley Ltd,
Australia.
Sierp, A. (1969) Basic Course in Technical Drawing, Sydney.
Technical Drawing and Design and Communication Graphics, http://www.practicalstudent.com
Tekerau. T, TEFO3_U3 USP DFL, 2007.
Timings,R.L. (1981) Basic Engineering, Longman Craft Studies Series
Wilson. C. Rod (1997) Basic Technical Drawing, A Graphic Approach, Third Edition, Australia.
Yarwood, A.(1983). Geometrical and Technical Drawing Book 1. China: Nelson.

Websites:

http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Civil_engineering. Retrieved on June 12, 2016.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_design. Retrieved on July 15, 2016.
http://www.google.com.fj/#hl=en&source=hp&q=pictorial+drawing&btnG=Google+Search&rlz=1R2TSA
U_enFJ370&aq=f&aqi=g4g-m6&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai=&fp=b8412211f9017311. Retrieved on July 1, 2016.
http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/plane.html. Retrieved on July 1, 2016.
http://www.solarnavigator.net/patents.htm. Retrieved on July 10, 2016.
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