CE Refresher

ControIValve.s,
In

Process Plan
For proper performance in any piping 'system, he e are the design relations, sizing
formulas and installation procedures for seleCting and using control valves for fluids.

ROBERT KERN, Hoffmann - La Roche Inc.*

Control valves are the basic .regulatory devices in any

process operation handling fluid streams. Hence, we must
be thoroughly familiar with the different types of these'
valves and their flow characteristics. This enables us to
meet process conditions, and to ensure proper installation
in the fluid system.

In recent years, a second group of control valves has

received wide .acceptance. In these types, the actuator
rotates a butterfly flap, plug or disk around its axis
(Fig. 3). Size for size, these valves usually have higher
capacities and less flow resistance than the contouredplug valves. Generally, control valves with rotating axes
are suitable fora wide range of flow-control applications.

Major Types of Control Valves

Characteristics of Valve Plugs
In the following brief discussions, only the general
features of each control valve are given. For complete
details about a specific control valve, consult the manufacturers' literature.'
.
One major group of control valves resembles the globe
valve (Fig. 1). In place of a handwheel, an actuator
moves the valve stem and plug, thereby opening and
closing the valve. The usual act-ilator is an air-operated
device whose housing contains a diaphragm that separates it into two compartments. The diaphragm (and
attached valve stem) is balanced in its position by a
spring on one side and air pressure on the other. In flow
control, the air pressure changes in response to a signal
resulting from the measurement of the differential pressure across an orifice or other flow-sensing element.
The single-ported control valve (Fig. 1) finds use where
tight shutoff is required in addition to flow control. The
double-ported control valve (Fig. 1) has two seat rings
with two plugs on a common stem. This is a higher
capacity valve than the single-seated one of the same size.
With hard seat rings and high temperatures, the doubleseated valve cannot shut off tightly. The valve accessories,
shown in Fig. 2, ~l1ow for various operating functions
and conditions.
To meet your author, see Chern. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974, p. 66.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/APRIL 14,1975

CE REFRESHER

, \

Single-Seat (Equal-percentage
contoured plug, fails closed)

Double-Seat (Equal-percentage
ported plug, fails open)'

Alternative
Actuator and Plugs

CONTROL valves handle many types of process fluids. and are actuated by air In response to a process signal-Fig. 1

I
I

available; or where pressure drop across the control valve

'
varies greatly.
The modified parabolic-flow characteristic falls between the linear and equal-percentage characteristics.
This type of plug (usually V-port) finds use where the
major part of the system pressure drop is available for
control.
Actuators (also called operators or valve positioners)
lift the valve stem and plug above its seat, or move the
plug in the seat cylinder. Butterfly or ball-type control
valves have the actuators side~mounted because the actuator stem rotates the hIve axle. Plug characteristics can
be influenced by the linkage between actuator stem and
valve axle.
The valve housing ,and the operator's yoke are separate
pieces. Hence, after a valve is installed, the operator can
be rotated around the valve stem or valve axle, relative
to the valve body. This enables a convenient position to
be chosen for the actuator, in order ,to provide access
to operating points on the valve.
Hydraulic, mechanical and piston operators are also
available.

Butterfly
Valve

Ball Valve

Camflex Valve

Safety Requirements
Without air pressure in the pneumatic actuator, the
valve can be in clos~dor open position. These alternative
86

ROTARY actuator
moves flap, plug
or disk-Fig. 3
APRIL 14, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

I
I

Lubricator for
valve-stem
packing box

Bellows Bonnet
(Seal between valve and
packing box in toxic service)

Extension Bonnet
(For cryogenic temperatures)

Finned Bonnet
0
(For temperatures higher than 400 F) .

Side Mounted

Case Mounted

Pneumatic Positioner
(Or transmitter) .

Handwheels
(For manual operation at
startup or air failure)

limit Stop
(Restricts stem movement!

ACCESSORIES extend usefulness of control valves by providing for extreme and unusual conditions-Fig. 2

positions are accomplished by reversing the seat ring and

plug, or by reversing the location of the actuator spring.
from below to above the diaphragm (Fig. 1).
One concern of the designer is to select valves that will
fail-safe in the event of instrument-air failure. In principle, a control valve fails safe if temperature and pressure
of the process system do not increase after the control
valve becomes inactive.
For example, fuel-oil control valves to heater burners
should fail closed. At the same time, feed to heater tubes
(in most cases) should fail open to avoid overheating the
furnace tubes. The feed-control valve to fractionating
columns usually fails clos.ed. Steam supply to reboiler
fails closcd. Rcflux-drum vapor outlet and reflux pumpdischarge valves fail open. Control valves in minimum- .
flow bypass lines at centrifugal-pump dischargc lines,
compressor bypass lines, and reciprocating-machine bypass lines fail open.
Reactors are protetted under controlled conditions,
and usually the feed-control valve fails closed. Generally,
a designer of flow systems should consult process, instruCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/APRIL 14,1975

mentation and equipment engineers when d~ciding on

fail-safe' positions for control valves so as to assure
orderly. shutdown procedures~

Capacity Coefficients of Valves

Valve flow coefficient, C", depends o.n the internal
dimensions of the valve and the smoothness of surfaces.
Tests made by manufacturers (using water or ai~ at predetermined pressure difference) establish C" values.
Manufacturers give the following definition:
C v = Q( VSiylJ

C" is a capacity index indicating the flow of 60F watcr

in gpm, which will pass through the completcly open
valve under a pressurc dilTerence of I psi between thc
inlet and outlet Oanges. Obviously, if S I and
6P
I- psi, then C"
Q.
Capacity indexes for the butterfly valve are also given
at two throttling positions of the flap, in addition to the
fully open position.
.

87

CE REFRESHER

I
Nomenclature
C,

Critical flow factor for line-size valve

Critical flow factor for valve between pipe reducers
Capacity coefficient for control valve in fully open
position
C,,, Calculated coefficient for control valve
D/d Ratio bctwec'n larger pipc dia. to smaller pi pc dia.
E
Expansion factor, Pao/P
k
Ratio of specific heats
M
Molecular weight
P
Absolute pressure, psia
P'
Absolute pressure, psia
Pc
Critical pressure, psia
t:,.p Differential pressure, psi
P"
Vapor pressure of liquid at flowing temperature,
psia
Q
Volume flowrate, gpm
K
Correction factor for control valve between pipe
reducers
S
Specific gravity of liquid, p/PaOw
Sao Specific gravity of liquid at 60F
T
Absolute temperature, OR
v,
Sonic velocity, ft/s
W
Weight flowrate, Ib/h
JL
Viscosity, cp
P
Density of fluid at flowing condition, Ib/ft3
Pao
Density of fluid at 60F, Ib/ft 3
Paow Density of water at 60F, 62.37 Ib/ft3
Subscripts
.
I
Upstream condition
2
Downstream condition

Crr
C"

FLOW characteristics of ported or contoured plugs-Fig~ 4 '

Control-valve coefficients for single- and double-seated

valves are given in Table I.
Calculated Flow Coefficient, Cve-When sizing control
valves, a flow coefficient is calculated with normal design
flowrate in gpm from:
Cve

==

Q( VS/y"M)

Then a valve, is selected whose capacity index, Cv '

exceeds Cve ' For a good range of control, the capacity
index should fall between 1.25 to 2 times the calculated
flow coefficient, or:
C"/C,, == 0.5 to 0.8

This is an optimum range for lirtear and percentagecontoured plugs. Some valves have a wider optimum
range. All valves will operate below and above these
Cve/Cv ratios, but the plug willl:>~ closer to the fully open
or fully closed position. Under these conditions, we lose
the important advantage of having wide flexibility in '
controllable flow-capacity range, and this may limit,
operability of the process.
High velocities across' the valve orifice can wear out
the plug and seat, especially if temperature is also high
or when abrasive fluid is present.
Critical Flow Factor, C,-The pressure gradient across
a control valve is shown in Fig. 5. For liquids, the flow
can be considered subcritical if the vapor pressure of the
liquid will not get higher than the lowest pressure'point
across the control valve. (Vapor pressure is the pressure
at which the liquid begins to vaporize at its flowing
temperature. Tables of thermodynamic properties of liquids give corresponding saturated-liquid pressures and
temperatures.)
If the vapor pressure falls between the ranges of A
and B (see Fig. 5), vaporization or cavitation will occur
88

II
I
I

in the control valve.' If the va'por pressure nears the

downstream pressure, Pz , cavitation can be suspected.
Cavitation can cause rapid wear of valve plug and seat
as well as vibration and noise. If the vapor pressure falls
between upstream and downstream pressures, PI and Pz'
vaporization can occur. In this case, there will be twophase flow in the pipeline after the control valve. If the
vapor pressure is higher than the inlet pressure, PI' the
control valve receives two-phase flow; and additional
vaporization can be considered across the valve. For this
condition, diameter of the downstream pipe will usually
be larger than the upstream pipe.
The criteria for subcritical and critical flows in liquids
are, respeCtively:
'
t:,.p < C,zct:,.p.)

(/)

c,z(t:,.p.)

(2)

t:..P

where:

t:,.p. == PI

(0.96 - 0.28 YP1/Pc)p.

and Pe is the critical pressure, psia.

For simplicity: tl.P. == PI - Pv ' provided that Pv

a. 5PI

(3)

<

The sizing formula for critical 'flow is:

ClIC

==

(Q/Cr)(VS/..;t;P.)

(4)

We will use a simplified version of Eq. (4) later in this

article.
One example of subcritical flow is that occurring in
a control valve located in the discharge line froni a centrifugal pump. CtitiGal flow cart Qur afQSS Ii' prSSUfAPRIL 14, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

I
II
!

I
j

1
I
I

1II111HlllllmlllllllllllllmmllllllllilUlUltmlllllllllllllllllUUlllllllIllllUIlIIIIllll1ll1l1ll1lUlII1l1lllJllIUI1lUlIIIII1IImmllllllllllll1l1ll1ll1l1ll11ll

Flow Coefficients for Control Valves-Table I

Flow Coefficient, C"
Size, In

Single-Seat"

reducing valve where. the upstream liquid condition is

close to the boiling point.
For gases, critical flow is assumed w.hen gas velocity'
reaches the sonic velocity:

Double-Seat"

v. = 68Vk(~'/p), ft/~.

(5)

.0/.

12

1%

14

18

1%

21

28

36

48

t:,p

< 0.5C,zPl

(6)

2%

54

72

t::.P ~ O.5Q Pl

(7)

75 .

110

124

195

270

450

480

750

10

750

1,160

12

1,080

1,620

14

1,470

2,000

16

1,920

2,560

These values have been obtained for Masoneilan 10,OOO-series (either

equal-percentage or V-port) plug valves having full-capacity trim, but also apply
to similar valves of other manufacturers [2].
11I1111I111111I1111I111111I111I11I1111111111111I11111111111I111I11I11I11I1111I1111I11I1111111111111111111111I1111I11I11I11111111I11I111I11I1111111111111111111I111I111I11I111111

Sonic velocity should be avoided because it can ca,use

noise and vibration.
The criteria for subcriticaland critical flows in gases
are, respectively:

Critical flow can be avoided by reducing the pressure

drop across the valve, by relocating the valve in the flow
system, or by choosing a valve with a high Cr value.
The critical flow factor, Cr, is a dimensionless number,
which depends. on the valve type [6]. Cr is the ratio
between the control-valve coefficient under 'critical conditions and the flow coefficie,l}t as published in manufacturers' literature.
Valve Between Pipe Reducers-Flow capacity of a control valve placed between pipe reducers is slightly decreased. In subcritical flow, this is accounted for by a
correction factor, R. In critical flow, the correction factor
is Crr , which replaces Cr in the calculations, Rand C rr
also depend on the ratio between pipe size and valve
size. Cr1 Crr and R have values smaller than 1. Numerical
values for the valves shown in Fig. I are listed in Table II.
Let us now summarize a number of formulas for sizing
control valves for liquid and gas services under difl'erent
flow conditions [1].

Liquid Service
Suberitical Flow-For a liquid flowing well below its
saturation temperature in the turbulent zone, wjth vis~
cosity close to that of water, and sizes of the pipe and
control valve identical, the' calculated control-valve
coefficient is:
(8)

where the specific gravity, S, and flowrate, Q gpm, are

taken at the flowing temperature; and DoP:::: PI - P z .
For minimum pressure drop at the fully open piug
position, Cv replaces Cve :
t:,P(min) = (Q/C,,)2S, psi
.

(9)
J '.

If we are interested in the pressure drop at a selected

plug position between Cve/Cv 0.5 to 0.8, ,a convenient
expression is:
.

t:,p =

Q
J2
[ (C"jC")C,, S,psi

(10)

where Cv is taken from the manufacturer's catalog, and

CvclCv is the selected plug position. (The methods of
Eq. (9) and (10) can also be adapted to vapor flow.) ,
The calculated flow coefficient for laminar or viscous
flow is:
. (II)

PRESSURES during liquid flow in a control valve-Fig. 5

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/APRIL 14, 1975

Critical Flow-If the valve and piping are the same

89

CE REFRESHER

lllllllJlIIlllllllll!l!Ir1lllllUlIlllllllllllllllfJlI/IIUlm:lIl1l11ll1l1l1llllllllmllUlIIlIlIUIIlIlIIlIIlIIlI1Il1l1l1l!llIIllllllllllllllllllllllllllUlIlIlIlIlllllllmlUlIlIlIlIlIIllllllIIlllllIlIIllllllIIlIIlllllIlIlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllUlIlllIIlIlIlIlllUlllIlllllllllllllllIIllllllllIlIIllllllIllllllllllllIIllllIlllIIlllllI1llIIUIlUfilI

Correction Factors for Control-Valve Flow Coefficielit-Table"

r----.--.

Condition

I
I

Double-Seat*

Single-Seat*
Factor

Equal-Percentage

V-Port

Equal-Percentage

V-Port

Cr

0.98 t or 0.85*

0.98

0.90

0.98

Crr

0.86

0.94

0.86

0.94

Critical flow
Line size control valve
1------

Critical flow
(Control valve between
pipe reducers) .
f-----'----

R
R

Subcritical flow, 0 (d =::: 1.5

Subcritical flow. Old =::: 2
(Control valve between
pipe reducers)

0.96
0.94

''-._-_.-

, These values have been obtained for Masoneilan 10.000-series plug valves having fUII:capacity trim. but also apply to similar valves of other manufacturers [2].
'Faclor for flow 10 open.
'Factor for flow to close.
1II1l11ll1ll1ll1l1l1ll1ll1ll1ll11ll11ll1ll11ll1ll1ll1ll!1l1ll1l1l1ll1ll1ll1l1ll1ll1l1l1l11ll1ll1ll1ll1l1l1l1l1ll1l1ll1l1l1ll1l1l1l1111111111I11I111111I1111I11I11111111I11I1111I111I11I11I111111111I11I1111I11I11I111I1111111111111111I111111I111I1111I11I11111I111111I11I111I111111111I11I111I1111111I11I11111111I11I11111111I11111111I111I1111111111I111111111111I11I1111I111111

size. the simplified calculated control-valve coefficient

becomes:
C"r

=:::

(QICr)( VSivi\

PII )

C =
W_
'!C
63.3 '1[6;1'1'1

provideJ 1'11:2 0.51'1'.

Gas, Steam and Vapor Service

The calculated conlrol-\'alve coefficient for subcritical
flow will be:
CII "

::':;

W
11.65 V3P(P1

P2)Pl

where the maximum t::,p 0.5C/p l (For calculating

the densities in two-phase. flow, see Part I of this series,
Chem~ Eng., Dec. 23, 1974, pp. 60-61.)

Example Illustrates Computations

-----~--==

where ::"1'
1\ - 1'2' provided th.at t::,p
For critical flow when ::'1' ~ O.SC/pt :
.

>

.rently (i.e., Pv
PI)' additional vaporization of
liquid can be assumed inside the control valve. For this
condition:

C vr = 1O.13C'p1 V;;;

(13)

Let LIS size the control valves for handling a flow of

l13,000 Ib/h (348 gpm) of liquid ammonia in each of

< n.5C/p!.
(14)

If the valve is located between pipe reducers, multiply

the righthand side of Eq. (8), (I I) and (13) by (1/R); .
and Eq. (9) and (10) by (I/R2). Replace C r with CrT in
Eq. (12) and (14).
. These corrections can be neglected if the capacity of
the selected control valve at normal flow gives a coefficient ratio, Cvc/C v' well within 0.5 to 0.8. The operating
position of the valve plug will perhaps not be identical
to the calculated position, but this will not change valve
or pipe size. Also, in sizing valves for critical flow, make
sure that the ylug will not operate close to its seat.

Two-Phase Flow
For well-mixed liquid and inert gas in turbulent flow
with no additional vaporization, the following applies:

w
c,,,. = 44.8 Y'X/>(=(IJ=+='='z==)-

(15)

where PI and P2 are the upstream and downstream two'phase densities, respectively.
When saturated liquid enters the valve (i.e., PI == Pv ),
or saturated liquid and its saturated vapor flow concur90

FLOW relations fgf sizing Mntml valvel;=Fig, 6

APRIL 14, 1975/CHEM!CAL ENGINEERING

CE REFRESHER .
111IllllIJIlllllIlllUIJ\lI1II1I1l1l1ll1ll11ll1fl1l1l1l11ll1lmmUlIIIIIl1ll11ll1ll1l1ll11ll11l1l1l1l1llilililUIlI1I1111111l1ll1llllJIllUllUIIIIIllllillilUlUIIIIIIII1I11II11Il11ll11ll11ll1I1ll1I1l1l1l1ll1I1II1ll11l1II1l11ll1IIIlJIIIIIll11UlIllIlIllllllllllllllllllllllfllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllJllIllllltllllllllllllUlllllJIlI/lUlll

Flow Coefficients for Hand-Operated Throttling Valves-Table III

<Ii

'"c

:i:
c

..,
<V

No. 556

No. 576P

No. 1040

No. 1042

Bronze Globe Valves (threaded)

No. 1046

Steel Globe Valves (Flanged)

Flow Coefficient,

Cv
Size,
In

For Valves
No. 546P-150 Psi
No. 556P-200 Psi
No. 576P300 Psi

Flow Coefficient,

Flow Coefficient,

Cv
For Valves
No. 556-200 Psi
No. 576300 Psi

Flow Coefficient,

Cv
Size,
In

For Valve
No. 1040-150 Psi

Cv
For Valves
No. 1042-300 Psi
No. 1046-600 Psi

0.9

1.2

46

55

4.2

2~

72

90

8.6

105

130

10

14.5

200

235

1~

24.

29.5

. 400

400

41

49

720

720

Note: Flow coefficients have been obtained for valves manufactured by Jenkins
Bros. but also apply to similar valves of other manufactu,rers.

1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

estimates, will have minor effect on valve capacity. These

are small values-square-r09t functions of the calculated
flow coefficient.
.
When critical flow occurs in the liquid, the piping after
the control valve (and bypass valve) should be carefully
sized. Vaporization increases pipe resistance considerably. To stay within reasonable velocities when vaporiza- .
tion occurs across the control valve, the downstream
piping and plock valve will often be larger in size than
the upstream pipe size.
In some cases of saturated liquid flow, vaporization in
and after the control valve can be avoi~ed by providing
a static head of liquid upstream of the valve. This should
be noted on the engineering flow oiagram.
At high pressures, high temperatures, or large pressure
differentials, the control valve should not operate close
to its seat. High velocities can wear the plug and seat.
This causes inaccurate flow control, and leakage when
the valve shuts off.

Bypassing the Control Valve

A bypass is usually provided for control valves smaller
than 2 in., in lethal and high-viscosity services, in handling liquids containing abrasive solids, in boiler feedwater service, and in high (over 100 psi) pressurereducing steam service.
For consistency in piping design, the flow coefficient
for the bypass valve sliould be about the same as that
for the control valve. Table III lists the flow coefficients
92

. for 'some of one manufacturer's globe valves. Because of

various seat-ana-plug designs, valve coefficients are not
the same for comparable globe valves made by different.
manufacturers.
We find by comparing the data in Table III for globe
valves with the flow coefficients for double-seated control
valves in Table I that the bypass valve and control valve
can be the same size. For single-seated control valves,
the bypass globe valve can be one size smaller than the
control valve. We can size bypass globe valves or manually operated throttling valves in the same way as control
valves provided that flow coefficients are available.

Piping the Control Valve

The best position for a control valve is with the stem
vertically up}Vard. A control valve will operate in angular,
horizontal or vertically downward position. Neither piping designers nor operators accept these positions. Large
angle-control valves are an exception; a horizontal position for them can be most practical.
.
A single control valve without block valves and bypass
is usually sufficient in clean-fluid service; or where parallei equipment containing control valves is installed with
block valves located at pipe headers. Where dirty fluid
or solid particles can be occasionally expected, a temporary or permanent strainer is installed, upstream of the
control valve. Single control valves have handwheel.
operators.
Most piping specifications call for control valves to be
APRIL 14, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

j
j

1
Ij

I
I
1
i

.\

T
i

~~[><]TcklfG) "
)c,

4'"

' _d"l

~r..,"';=.".".,.. _"-".,.,.,"",""..."-,....,,7"1
T

..:;

'0~?

MANIFOLDS and bypasses for installing control valves into the process piping require proper clearances and drains-Fig. 7

located above grade or platform elevation, and at the

edge of accessways, except for those valves that have to
be located in self-draining pipelines. For example, a
control valve placed in an overhead gravity-flow slurry
line.
.
For inplace maintenance, clearance space is required
below and abo,,;e the valve for removing the seat, plug,
actuator cover, spring and yoke. Estimated clearance
requirements are shown in Fig. 7. Dimensions of control
valves are given by manufacturers [2,4]. ,
If flow conditions permit, manifolds for the control
valve that are smaller in size thaI)' the main piping will
. prove economical. Typical standard manifolds are shown
in Fig. 7 [10]. The V-type is chosen when the inlet and
outlet flows approach the qmtrol valve from an elevation
higher than that of the valve. The corner type is used
when flow is from a high point to a low point, or the
reverse. The Ipoped~bypass type serves horizontal flows
near grade. A looped-corner bypass can bring a control
valve over the operating platform. For economical support, control-valve manifolds should be located near'
structural columns.
For pressure-relieving and draining a control-valve
manifold, provide drain valves or plugs at low points.
One drain point is required if the control valve fails open.
Drains on each side of the control valve are needed if
it fails closed. In saturated-steam flow, one or two steam
traps are advisable at the low points of a pocketed control-valve manifold.
The automatic control valve is part of an instrumentaCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/APRIL 14, 1975

tion system. Sensing points for flow, pressure, temperature and level should be close to the control valve, as
shoul~ the. transmitter. Instrument' wiring and tubing
connect these elements. Air lines run from the transmitter
to the diaphragm housing, and from the transmitter to
.the, instrument-air header.
Level controllers usually have gage-glass companions.
It is convenient for the plant operator to see the gage
glasses from the control-valve manifold when operating
the control-valve handwheel or the bypass globe valve.
The next article in this series will appear in the issue
of Apr. 28, 1975, and will cover the design relations for
sizing pump-suction piping. #
References
I. "Handbook for Control Valve Sizing," Masoneilan International, Inc.
Norwood, MA 02062.
2. Dimensions-Masoneilan Control Valves and Auxiliary Equipment,
Masoneilan International, Inc., Norwood, MA 02062.
3. "Valve Sizing," Catalog 10, Fisher Controls Co., Marshalltown, IA
50158.
4. Fisher Control Valve Dimensions, Bulletin 1-100, Fisher Controls
Co., Marshalltown, IA 50158.
5. Boger, H.W., Recent Trends in Sizing Control Valves, 23rd Annual
Symposium on Instrumentation for the Process Industries, Texas
. A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, 1968.
6. Baumann, H. D., The Introduction of Critical Flow Factor for Valve
Sizing,ISA (Instr. Soc. Am.) Trans., Apr. 1963.
7. Baumann, H. D., Effect of Pipe Reducers on Valve Capacity, Instr.
Control Systems, Dec. 1967.
. 8. Boger, H. W., Sizing Control Valves for Flashing Service, Instr.
Control Systems, Jan. 1970.
9. Boger; H. W., Flow Characteristics for Control Valve Installations,
ISA (Instr. Soc. Am) 1., Oct. 1966.
10. Hutchison, J. W. (Ed.), "ISA Handbook of Control Valves,',' Instrument Soc. of America, Pittsburgh, 1971.

93