skip to main content
10.1145/1640233.1640260acmconferencesArticle/Chapter ViewAbstractPublication Pagesc-n-cConference Proceedingsconference-collections
research-article

The efficacy of prototyping under time constraints

Published: 26 October 2009 Publication History

Abstract

Iterative prototyping helps designers refine their ideas and discover previously unknown issues and opportunities. However, the time constraints of production schedules can discourage iteration in favor of realization. Is this tradeoff prudent? This paper investigates if - under tight time constraints - iterating multiple times provides more benefit than a single iteration. A between-subjects study manipulates participants' ability to iterate on a design task. Participants in the iteration condition outperformed those in the non-iteration condition. Participants with prior experience with the task performed better. Notably, participants in the iteration condition without prior task experience performed as well as non-iterating participants with prior task experience.

References

[1]
Aronson, J. M. Improving academic achievement. Academic Press, 2002.
[2]
Athavankar, U. A. Mental Imagery as a Design Tool. Cybernetics and Systems 28, 1 (1997), 25--42.
[3]
Austin, R. and Devin, L. Artful Making: What Managers Need to Know About How Artists Work. Financial Times Press, 2003.
[4]
Ball, L. J. and Christensen, B. T. Analogical reasoning and mental simulation in design: two strategies linked to uncertainty resolution. Design Studies 30, 2 (2009), 169--186.
[5]
Bilda, Z. and Gero, J. S. The impact of working memory limitations on the design process during conceptualization. Design Studies 28, 4 (2007), 343--367.
[6]
de Bono, E. Six Thinking Hats. Back Bay Books, 1999.
[7]
Brown, T. Change By Design. HarperCollins, 2009.
[8]
Buchenau, M. and Suri, J. F. Experience prototyping. Proceedings of the 3rd conference on Designing interactive systems: processes, practices, methods, and techniques, ACM (2000), 424--433.
[9]
Buxton, B. Sketching User Experiences: Getting the Design Right and the Right Design. Morgan Kaufmann, 2007.
[10]
Christensen, B. T. and Schunn, C. D. The role and impact of mental simulation in design. Applied Cognitive Psychology 23, 3 (2009), 327--344.
[11]
Cross, N. Designerly Ways of Knowing. Springer, 2006.
[12]
De Leon, D. Building Thought Into Things. European Conference on Cognitive Science, (1999), 37--47.
[13]
Dodgson, P. and Wood, J. Self-esteem and the cognitive accessibility of strengths and weaknesses after failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75, 1 (1998), 178--197.
[14]
Dweck, C. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Ballantine Books, 2007.
[15]
Dym, C. L. and Little, P. Engineering Design: A Project-Based Introduction. Wiley, 1999.
[16]
Erdogmus, H. The Economic Impact of Learning and Flexibility on Process Decisions. IEEE Softw. 22, 6 (2005), 76--83.
[17]
Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. J., and Hoffman, R. R. The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
[18]
Finke, R. A. and Slayton, K. Explorations of creative visual synthesis in mental imagery. Memory&Cognition 16, 3 (1988), 252--7.
[19]
Finke, R. A. Creative Imagery. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990.
[20]
Gentner, D. and Stevens, A. L. Mental Models. 1983.
[21]
Gero, J. S. and Schnier, T. Evolving Representations Of Design Cases And Their Use In Creative Design. in J. S. Gero, M. L. Maher and F. Sudweeks (eds), Pre-prints Computational Models of Creative Design (1995), 343--368.
[22]
Goffman, E. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. Northeastern, 1986.
[23]
Hartmann, B., Doorley, S., and Klemmer, S. Hacking, Mashing, Gluing: A Study of Opportunistic Design and Development. Pervasive Computing 7, 3 (2006), 46--54.
[24]
Hinds, P. The Curse of Expertise: The Effects of Expertise and Debiasing Methods on Predictions of Novice Performance. Journal of Experimental Applied Psychology 5, (1999), 205--221.
[25]
Hollan, J., Hutchins, E., and Kirsh, D. Distributed Cognition: Toward a New Foundation for Human-Computer Interaction Research. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction 7, 2 (2000), 174--196.
[26]
Houde, S. and Hill, C. What Do Prototypes Prototype? Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction, (1997).
[27]
Hutchins, E. Cognition in the Wild. The MIT Press, 1996.
[28]
Jansson, D. and Smith, S. Design Fixation. Design Studies 12, 1 (1991), 3--11.
[29]
John Paul Jones. Design Methods. Wiley, 1992.
[30]
Karat, C. Cost-Benefit Analysis of Usability Engineering Techniques. Human Factors Society, (1990), 839--843.
[31]
Kelley, T. The Art of Innovation. Profile Business, 2002.
[32]
Kershaw, T. C. and Ohlsson, S. Multiple causes of difficulty in insight: the case of the nine-dot problem. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition 30, 1 (2004), 3--13.
[33]
Kirsh, D. and Maglio, P. On Distinguishing Epistemic from Pragmatic Action. Cognitive Science 18, (1994), 513--549.
[34]
Kolko, J. Thoughts on Interaction Design. Brown Bear LLC, 2007.
[35]
Kolodner, J. L. and Wills, L. M. Powers of observation in creative design. Design Studies 17, 4 (1996), 385--416.
[36]
Larkin, J. and Simon, H. Why a Diagram is (Sometimes) Worth Ten Thousand Words. Cognitive Science 11, 1 (1987), 65--100.
[37]
Laurel, B. Design Research: Methods and Perspectives. The MIT Press, 2003.
[38]
Lave, J. Cognition in practice. Cambridge University Press, 1988.
[39]
Lim, Y., Stolterman, E., and Tenenberg, J. The anatomy of prototypes: Prototypes as filters, prototypes as manifestations of design ideas. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction 15, 2 (2008), 1--27.
[40]
Lim, Y., Pangam, A., Periyasami, S., and Aneja, S. Comparative analysis of high- and low-fidelity prototypes for more valid usability evaluations of mobile devices. Proceedings of the 4th Nordic conference on Human-computer interaction: changing roles, ACM (2006), 291--300.
[41]
Maglio, P., Matlock, T., Raphaely, D., Chernicky, B., and Kirsh, D. Interactive Skill in Scrabble. Lawrence Erlbaum (1999).
[42]
Maglio, P. P. and Kirsh, D. Epistemic Action Increases With Skill. In Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society 16, (1996), 391--396.
[43]
Martin, R. L. Creativity That Goes Deep. Business Week, 2005. http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/aug2005/di20050803_823317.htm.
[44]
Merholz, P., Wilkens, T., Schauer, B., and Verba, D. Subject To Change: Creating Great Products&Services for an Uncertain World: Adaptive Path on Design. O'Reilly Media, Inc., 2008.
[45]
Michalko, M. Thinkertoys: A Handbook of Creative-Thinking Techniques. Ten Speed Press, 2006.
[46]
Miller, G. A. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review 63, 2 (1956), 81--97.
[47]
Osborn, A. F. Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Problem Solving. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1963.
[48]
Schon, D. A. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. Ashgate Publishing, 1995.
[49]
Schrage, M. Cultures of prototyping. In Bringing design to software book contents. 1996, 191--213.
[50]
Schrage, M. Serious Play: How the World's Best Companies Simulate to Innovate. Harvard Business School Press, 1999.
[51]
Sutton, R. and Hargadon, A. Brainstorming groups in context: effectiveness in a product design firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, (1996).
[52]
Suwa, M., Gero, J., and Purcell, T. Unexpected discoveries and S-invention of design requirements: Important vehicles for a design process. Design Studies 21, (2000), 539--567.
[53]
Suwa, M. and Tversky, B. External Representations Contribute to the Dynamic Construction of Ideas. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Diagrammatic Representation and Inference, Springer-Verlag (2002), 341--343.
[54]
Thompson, L., Gentner, D., and Loewenstein, J. Avoiding Missed Opportunities in Managerial Life: Analogical Training More Powerful Than Individual Case Training. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 82, 1 (2000), 60--75.
[55]
Torrance, E. P. Torrance tests of creative thinking. Personnel Press, Ginn and Co., Xerox Education Co, 1974.
[56]
Warr, A. and O'Neill, E. Understanding design as a social creative process. Proceedings of the 5th conference on Creativity&Cognition, ACM (2005), 118--127.
[57]
Ylirisku, S., Halttunen, V., Nuojua, J., and Juustila, A. Framing design in the third paradigm. Proceedings of the 27th international conference on Human factors in computing systems, ACM (2009), 1131--1140.
[58]
Zhang, J. and Norman, D. Representations in distributed cognitive tasks. Cognitive Science 18, 1 (1994), 87--122.

Cited By

View all

Index Terms

  1. The efficacy of prototyping under time constraints

    Recommendations

    Comments

    Information & Contributors

    Information

    Published In

    cover image ACM Conferences
    C&C '09: Proceedings of the seventh ACM conference on Creativity and cognition
    October 2009
    520 pages
    ISBN:9781605588650
    DOI:10.1145/1640233
    Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected]

    Sponsors

    In-Cooperation

    Publisher

    Association for Computing Machinery

    New York, NY, United States

    Publication History

    Published: 26 October 2009

    Permissions

    Request permissions for this article.

    Check for updates

    Author Tags

    1. empirical studies of design
    2. iteration
    3. prototyping

    Qualifiers

    • Research-article

    Conference

    C&C '09
    Sponsor:
    C&C '09: Creativity and Cognition 2009
    October 26 - 30, 2009
    California, Berkeley, USA

    Acceptance Rates

    Overall Acceptance Rate 108 of 371 submissions, 29%

    Contributors

    Other Metrics

    Bibliometrics & Citations

    Bibliometrics

    Article Metrics

    • Downloads (Last 12 months)150
    • Downloads (Last 6 weeks)22
    Reflects downloads up to 21 Dec 2024

    Other Metrics

    Citations

    Cited By

    View all

    View Options

    Login options

    View options

    PDF

    View or Download as a PDF file.

    PDF

    eReader

    View online with eReader.

    eReader

    Media

    Figures

    Other

    Tables

    Share

    Share

    Share this Publication link

    Share on social media