Enhancing and Sustaining Capacities for Higher Education and Science in Africa
Keynote Address, High-Level Scientific Convening, The African Research Initiative for Scientific Excellence (ARISE), organized by the African Academy of Sciences, the African Union, and European Union, Hammamet, Tunisia 3-7 June 2024.
It would be fair to say that higher education institutions around the world are in turmoil and transition spawned by the demands for post-Covid-19 pandemic reform, complex socioeconomic changes, rising political polarization and geopolitical rivalries, intellectual and ideological struggles on college campuses, and the disruptive propensities of digital technologies supercharged by artificial intelligence. This conference couldn't be timelier, and its theme on research and innovation for sustainable development more pressing.
I eagerly welcomed the invitation to participate in the conference for the opportunity to engage colleagues in STEM from around the continent and elsewhere to learn from them as someone reared in the human sciences. And what an intellectual feast it has been! Thank you to all the presenters for their brilliant papers that rekindled my subliminal disciplinary envy of STEM scholars! More mundanely, visiting Tunisia for the first time was irresistible. Another reason is that I have a book coming out next month titled, Re-envisioning the African and American Academies, published by CODESRIA, in which I examine many of the issues discussed at this conference. The chance to advertise the book was equally appealing!
My presentation is divided into four parts. First, I will discuss the main challenges and opportunities facing African universities that we are all familiar with. Second, I will focus on some of the ways to enhance capacities for higher education in general and STEM in particular, which is essential for robust and transformational science, technology, and innovation (STI) that is productively integrated with the social sciences and humanities for innovative and inclusive sustainable development. Third, I will examine the development of the AI landscape and its implications for higher education. Finally, I will interrogate transnational cooperation in science, research, and innovation by examining higher education relations between Africa and the major global powers, the European Union, China, and the United States, and the changes necessary to create more robust and mutually beneficial engagements.
The Challenges and Opportunities of African Higher Education Institutions
In my forthcoming book, and as we have heard copiously in this conference, African higher education institutions face many challenges, ten of which stand out. But there are also many opportunities, seven of which can be identified.
The Challenges
The first challenge centers on institutional supply. Despite explosive growth—more than a thousand universities have been established since 2000 across the continent—the number of universities in Africa is insufficient to accommodate the rapidly growing youth population, resulting in low enrollment ratios compared to other regions (which stands at about a third of the world average). This lack of capacity leads to overcrowded classrooms and many qualified students being unable to access higher education. Rural and remote areas are particularly underserved, exacerbating regional inequalities in access to higher education.
Second, financial resources for universities are limited, with all the major sources of funding under strain (government funding, tuition and fees, private donations and endowments, research grants and contracts, international aid and grants, corporate partnerships and sponsorships, auxiliary enterprises, consulting and service contracts). This financial shortfall affects the ability to maintain and upgrade infrastructure, invest in research, and provide adequate student services. The reliance on fluctuating external funding sources can make financial planning and long-term development challenging.
Third, deficient human capital. The rapid growth in student enrollments outpaces the training and recruitment of qualified faculty, resulting in high student-to-faculty ratios. Overburdened faculty struggle to provide quality education and engage in research. Opportunities for professional development and continuing education for faculty are limited, further exacerbating the issue.
Fourth, suboptimal teaching and learning facilities. Many universities face inadequate facilities, including outdated classrooms, laboratories, and libraries. The lack of modern equipment and resources hampers effective teaching and learning, particularly in STEM fields. Outdated pedagogies and a lack of integration of new teaching technologies contribute to unsatisfactory learning outcomes.
Fifth, there are serious and systemic leadership and governance issues. Governance structures in many institutions are often outdated and authoritarian, limiting academic freedom, shared governance, and innovation. Leadership development opportunities tend to be scarce in many institutions and countries, and bureaucratic resistance to change is common. This governance style can lead to inefficiency and a lack of responsiveness to the needs of students and faculty.
Sixth, higher education institutions face pervasive equity, diversity, and inclusion issues. Women, refugees, internally displaced persons, and people with disabilities tend to be underrepresented, and affirmative action policies are often weak or poorly implemented. Ethnic, religious, and socio-economic inequalities further affect access to and success in higher education.
Seventh, the institutional challenges outlined above affect the quality of graduates. Many educational programs are not aligned with industry needs or national development goals, resulting in graduates who struggle to find employment. In fact, in many countries university graduate unemployment and underemployment is sometimes higher than for secondary school graduates. The lack of career services and industry partnerships that could help bridge the gap between education and employment compounds the problem. This misalignment affects the relevance and quality of higher education.
Eighth, because of colonial history and its legacies and the current structures of the international division of intellectual labor, African higher education systems face challenges balancing indigenization and internationalization, integrating indigenous knowledge systems with Eurocentric academic standards. This tension affects their global competitiveness and research productivity. Limited international collaborations and low research funding further hinder the ability to achieve a balance between local relevance and global standards. The data on global scientific production shows that Africa lags on all key indicators from research and development expenditures, research personnel, scientific publications, and patents. Some universities do not have intellectual property policies and knowledge transfer offices.
Ninth, political interference, instability and conflicts disrupt educational systems, causing interruptions in academic calendars and damaging infrastructure. Instability can also contribute to brain drain as students and faculty seek stability abroad. Political uncertainty can deter investments in higher education and long-term planning. Increasing political polarization in some countries compromises research and teaching. This is true even in the so-called democracies of the global North. In the United States, rightwing zealots and white supremacists are waging ferocious assaults against academic freedom from the teaching of American history to research in reproductive health.
Finally, African countries are remarkably multilingual, some with more than one official language including the language of the former colonial power. Developing curricula that accommodate multiple languages can be complex and resource intensive. Ensuring fair and accurate assessment in a multilingual context can be challenging. Language proficiency for non-native speakers, whose mother tongue is different from the official languages are affected. Their learning and performance can be undermined. Language barriers also impact publishing opportunities for faculty in international journals, transnational collaboration, and access to global academic networks.
The Opportunities
The African higher education sector also faces many opportunities. One of Africa’s greatest assets is its rapid youth population growth, currently comprising one-quarter of the global youth population, expected to rise to one-third by 2050, when Africa will account for 25 percent of the global population. Thus, Africa will have a strong and sustained demand for higher education for the forseable future, unlike many parts of the global North with aging populations and facing a demographic cliff that will negatively impact higher education institutions. There is no doubt that investing in higher education can contribute to broader social and economic development, turning the youth bulge into a demographic dividend rather than a disaster of historic proportions.
The second set of opportunities arises out of economic growth, which has led to an unprecedented expansion of the middle classes, which have translated into demand for more educated labor and higher education. Since 2000 African economies have grown faster than in the 1980s and 1990s, a period that is often regarded as the “lost decades.” From 2000 to 2020, African economies experienced significantly improved growth rates, at an average rate of about 4-5% per year, with some countries achieving even higher growth rates. The drivers include better macroeconomic policies, improved political stability in many countries, rising global commodity prices (until the mid-2010s), and increased investment in infrastructure. As a result of improved business environments, economic reforms, regional integration efforts, and the discovery of new natural resources, there was also a substantial increase in FDI, with investments flowing into diverse sectors such as telecommunications, banking, retail, and mining.
The third set of opportunities is embedded in shifts in the global knowledge economy. The declining epistemic dominance of Euro-America reflects the economic rise of regions and countries outside the West, especially in Asia and the emerging economies including those in Latin America and Africa. These regions have been able to make significant investments in higher education and research. Within the Euro-American academies themselves, decolonial, feminist, and other radical intellectual insurgencies have intensified in recent decades contributing to the decentering of Eurocentric epistemic hegemony.
As global higher education has become more multipolar and competitive, opportunities have grown for African institutions to collaborate with a broader range of international partners, learning from diverse educational models and best practices, including building less hierarchical and more equitable South-South collaborations. African universities can seek funding from a more diverse range of international donors and investors, including those from emerging economies, reducing reliance on traditional Western funding sources.
By strategically positioning themselves in this evolving landscape, African higher education institutions can play a more prominent role in the global academic community, enhancing their research and innovation capacities, and contributing more significantly to a more balanced and inclusive global knowledge economy. The decline and decentering of Euro-American epistemic supremacy also creates space for the promotion and integration of indigenous knowledge systems in higher education. This can lead to more culturally relevant and sustainable development solutions. Expanding the spatial and epistemic scope of international research collaborations and leveraging technological advancements, African institutions can enhance their research and innovation capacities, and make a more substantial contribution to global knowledge production.
The digital revolution offers the fourth set of opportunities. It has helped to democratize access to information and educational resources, reducing the monopoly of institutions in the global North. African universities can leverage online education platforms, open access journals, and digital libraries to improve teaching, learning, and research. This helps to bridge the gap with more established institutions and facilitate African universities and countries to leapfrog their way forward. The decline of Euro-American hegemony in knowledge production creates space for the promotion and integration of indigenous knowledge systems in higher education. This can lead to more culturally relevant and sustainable development solutions.
The fifth set of opportunities centers on the growth of the African diaspora. The diaspora is a valuable resource, contributing through remittances, investments, and social capital. The diaspora is Africa’s biggest donor, not the EU, China or the U.S. as is popularly assumed. Africa’s international migrants and new diasporas remitted more than USD 90 billion in 2023. Diaspora networks can strengthen African higher education through research partnerships, student and faculty exchanges, and global advocacy. Formalizing collaborations with diaspora communities can enhance curriculum development, institutional capacity, and international visibility. An example is the Carnegie African Diaspora Fellowship program started in 2013, based on my research project conducted for the Carnegie Corporation of New York in 2011-2012. To date, the project has sponsored more than 650 fellows to over 170 universities in nine African countries.
The sixth set of opportunities lies in diversifying institutional revenue streams and developing innovative financing models. Exploring new financing models, such as income-contingent loans, public-private partnerships, and philanthropic contributions, can provide sustainable funding for higher education. In a presentation at a forum on fundraising convened by the International Association of Universities on May 23, 2024 attended by university leaders from around the world, I outlined how institutional capacity can be built in less developed university philanthropic cultures, which I will not go into here, except to say, it is indeed possible to do so. Diversifying funding sources can reduce reliance on government allocations.
The seventh set of opportunities centers on strengthening international collaborations with universities worldwide, which can enhance research capabilities, provide faculty and student exchange opportunities, and facilitate knowledge transfer. Participation in global research networks can increase the visibility and impact of African research. Developing joint degree programs and research initiatives with international partners can further integrate African higher education into the global academic community. I discuss this at length in the last section of the presentation.
Harnessing Opportunities to Overcome Challenges
Thus, the challenges noted earlier represent the flip side of opportunities. To put it differently, African higher education institutions can harness opportunities to overcome the challenges they face. Expanding access requires building more universities and satellite campuses, particularly in underserved areas, to accommodate the growing youth population, and implementing online and distance learning programs to increase access. This is essential for achieving higher enrollment rates and more equitable access to education.
Diversifying revenue streams and adopting innovative financing is imperative for promoting financial stability and the ability to invest in infrastructure and faculty development. As noted above, this entails developing sustainable funding models, including public-private partnerships, strengthening fundraising capacities, cultures, and commitments, including encouraging alumni contributions, establishing endowments, and raising international donor collaborations.
Prioritizing human capital development for the university sector itself is crucial to improve student-to-faculty ratios and the quality of education. This requires increased investment in faculty training and development programs. African higher education institutions and associations should also become more intentional and adept at mobilizing diaspora academics.
In this regard, partnerships with the historic or legacy diaspora and historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) in the case of the United States must be vigorously pursued. Because of their histories in a highly racialized society that has oppressed peoples of African descent for centuries, these institutions share many of the same values as African universities. Partnerships within and outside the continent should go beyond single inter-institutional engagements and entail collaborations through consortia as is increasingly being done between African and European universities.
Upgrading physical infrastructure and integrating digital technologies in teaching and learning are important for enhanced learning experiences and better educational outcomes. African higher education institutions must promote active learning and student-centered pedagogies. Undertaking leadership and governance reform for more effective and innovative institutional leadership is essential. This can be achieved by implementing training programs for university leaders and administrators, and fostering participatory institutional governance and upholding academic freedom.
Promoting greater diversity, equity and inclusion in African higher education institutions by not only recruiting more women and raising the gender parity index but also engendering STEM that remains predominantly male is important. This demands developing and implementing comprehensive affirmative action policies, and ensuring inclusive access to education for marginalized groups including refugees and the internally displaced, rural inhabitants, ethnic and religious minorities and people with disability.
Moreover, aligning education with economic needs is mutually beneficial for higher education institutions and industry. It generates increased employability of graduates and a stronger connection between education and economic development. This involves building partnerships with industries to align curriculum with labor market demands, and establishing robust career services and job placement support for graduates.
Balancing indigenization and internalization are about developing an integrated and relevant higher education system that values both local or indigenous and global knowledges. The mechanisms for doing so include fostering collaborations with other universities nationally, regionally, and internationally, embracing global trends in knowledge production while promoting indigenous knowledge systems. Equally beneficial is supporting faculty and student exchanges to enhance global cooperation and competitiveness.
Addressing political instability is indispensable for building and sustaining resilient educational institutions capable of withstanding political challenges. This objective challenges the higher education sector to advocate for stable political environments and policies that support universities and research networks. It also means, as we saw during the Covid-19 pandemic, enhancing risk management and establishing contingency plans to manage disruptions and ensure continuity.
Finally, overcoming language barriers for improved accessibility and inclusiveness in higher education, and facilitating better learning outcomes and international collaboration calls for developing comprehensive language policies, integrating multilingual approaches into curriculum design, providing professional development for educators in multilingual teaching methods, utilizing digital tools and platforms to support multilingual education, such as translation software, online language courses, and virtual exchange programs, fostering partnerships with local communities and international institutions to promote language learning and cultural exchange, and encouraging research on multilingual education and its impact on learning outcomes.
Building Capacities for STEM in African Higher Education
The challenges and opportunities identified above facing African higher education in general also apply to STEM education and research. Building robust STEM capacities in African countries involves a multifaceted approach, addressing various challenges while leveraging unique opportunities. The aim must be to provide solutions for pressing societal challenges at national, regional, and global levels so that the continent and its scientists become robust players in the global science landscape. The main challenges and corresponding solutions revolve around funding and resource allocation, infrastructure and facilities, quality of education and curriculum, human capital, access and equity, collaboration and networking, policy and governance, and raising awareness and scientific literacy.
First, it is widely lamented that insufficient funding for STEM programs leads to inadequate facilities, equipment, and resources, affecting the quality of education and research. Forty-four years ago, African countries committed to spend 1 percent of GDP on research and development. But by 2019, “the continent’s funding was only 0.42%, in sharp contrast to the global average of 1.7%.” Adequate funding is the backbone of capacity building for higher education in general and STEM in particular. It cannot be overstated that African governments must increase R&D expenditures to the world average at the very least.
Second, partnerships with private companies and international organizations must be pursued more vigorously to generate additional funding and resources. Diversification of funding sources also requires establishing innovative financing mechanisms, such as endowments and public-private partnerships that can be leveraged to fund and manage infrastructure projects. Industry investment in education can be facilitated through tax incentives and collaboration on research projects. Researchers must develop strong grant-writing capabilities to secure research grants and philanthropic contributions.
Third, many African universities lack modern laboratories, libraries, and technological infrastructure necessary for cutting-edge research and education. Therefore, investment in building and maintaining state-of-the-art laboratories, libraries, research centers, and digital infrastructure, is imperative. So is the establishment of regional hubs with advanced facilities that multiple institutions can access, and partnerships with global institutions to share resources and expertise.
Fourth, it is imperative to address the challenge of outdated curricula and teaching methods that do not meet current scientific and technological standards, which entails regularly updating curricula to include recent scientific advancements and practical skills. This can be effected through continuous professional development for scientists to adopt modern teaching methods and technologies, as well as engaging with industry experts to ensure that the curriculum is relevant to market needs and future trends.
Fifth, the widespread shortage of qualified STEM educators and researchers is often compounded by the brain drain as talented individuals leave for better opportunities abroad. Consequently, it is critical to recruit, retain, and retool quality human capital which requires improving working conditions, salaries, and career development opportunities for STEM professionals. Also crucial in this regard is diaspora engagement, creating programs that promote brain circulation through incentives and collaborative projects, and investment in training programs to develop local talent and build a robust pipeline of future STEM professionals.
Sixth, the disparities in access to STEM education, particularly for women and underrepresented groups must be confronted. Higher education institutions should implement policies that promote gender equality and inclusivity in STEM fields. The strategies include providing scholarships, mentorship programs, and outreach initiatives targeting underrepresented groups, and conducting campaigns to encourage participation in STEM among women and marginalized communities.
Seventh, limited collaboration within Africa and with international research communities that restricts knowledge exchange and innovation can be overcome by establishing and strengthening networks for collaboration, participating in global research initiatives, conferences, and exchange programs. Knowledge sharing, and encouraging joint research projects and publications to enhance visibility and impact is no less important. Collaborative programs with international universities are helpful to facilitate knowledge exchange and training.
Eighth, strategies are needed to address weak linkages between academia and industry, which result in research that is often not aligned with market needs and limited opportunities for students. This includes fostering strong partnerships with industry to align research and education with market demands, developing experiential learning and internship programs to provide practical experience for students, and encouraging industry to fund research projects and collaborate on product development. Industry must be encouraged not only to acquire talent, but help build it as well.
Ninth, inconsistent policies and inadequate governance structures impede the development of effective STEM education and research programs. Solutions include developing and implementing coherent policies that prioritize not only STEM education and research, but also interdisciplinary collaborations that integrate STEM and ASSH (arts, social sciences, and humanities). Additionally, there is a need to establish efficient and transparent governance structures to manage resources effectively, and implement robust monitoring and evaluation frameworks to assess the impact of policies and programs and make necessary adjustments.
Tenth, raising scientific literacy among policy makers and in society is indispensable for building public support that can translate into resource mobilization for the advancement of STEM education and research. Higher education institutions and research networks should run awareness campaigns to highlight the importance, impact, and opportunities in STEM fields, encourage early STEM education through partnerships with primary and secondary schools, facilitate the development of citizen science, and strengthen science translation capabilities.
While scientists and politicians occupy different institutional spaces, science and politics are intermingled insofar as public support for science is a political act, and addressing societal problems depends on scientific interventions. This means scientists must participate in the messy terrain of political advocacy.
Navigating the AI Landscape
Global AI Dynamics
Artificial intelligence technology encompasses machine learning, deep learning, natural language processing (whose applications include Chatbots, language translation, sentiment analysis, and text summarization), computer vision (used in autonomous vehicles, medical image analysis, and surveillance systems), robotics (for manufacturing automation, service robots, and autonomous drones), and expert systems (that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert and are deployed in medical diagnosis, financial decision-making, and customer support).
The development of AI goes back to the 1950s and has undergone several phases, each marked by significant advancements and growing practical applications. The foundational work is often dated to Alan Turing’s concept of a “universal machine,” the Turing Test, and early neural network models. Despite high expectations, there was little progress until the end of the 1970s, which led to reduced funding and interest, although basic research continued in some universities and select industries.
Progress in AI research and applications picked up from the 1980s with the development of machine learning. In the 2000s and 2010s came deep learning algorithms and architectures, such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for image processing and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) for sequential data. The explosion of data from the internet, social media, and IoT devices provided fuel for AI models. The period from the 2010s has been marked by the introduction of advanced AI models, widespread applications, and growing focus on ethical AI, fairness, transparency, and regulatory frameworks.
AI technologies pervade all walks of life and are transforming a wide range of industries by enhancing efficiency, reducing costs, and creating new opportunities for innovation and growth. AI applications are evident in healthcare (medical imaging, diagnostics, personalized medicine, and drug discovery); finance (credit scoring, fraud detection, and customer service); retail (inventory management, pricing optimization, customer service, and personalized recommendations); manufacturing (predictive maintenance, quality control, supply chain optimization, and robotics); transportation and logistics (autonomous vehicles, route optimization, traffic management, and fleet management); energy (smart grids, renewable energy management, energy consumption optimization, and predictive maintenance); customer service (Chatbots, sentiment analysis, automated support systems, and personalized experiences); entertainment (content recommendation, content creation, gaming, and virtual augmented reality); agriculture (precision farming, crop monitoring, supply chain optimization, and automated machinery); and in our own sector, education (personalized learning, tutoring and assistance, administrative tasks, and content creation).
The exponential development of AI has necessitated the development of regulatory policies at global, regional, national, and sectoral levels to address ethical concerns, promote research and innovation, and ensure that AI technologies are used responsibly and beneficially. These policies impact higher education institutions in so far as they shape research agendas, funding opportunities, curriculum development, and industry collaborations, and their respective contributions to the advancement of AI technologies.
At the global level the role of the United Nations and its agencies is pivotal. The UN Secretary-General has highlighted the need for a global framework for AI governance, emphasizing the importance of cooperation among nations to address the challenges and opportunities posed by AI. In November 2021, UNESCO adopted Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence, which “aims to provide a basis to make AI systems work for the good of humanity, individuals, societies and the environment and ecosystems, and to prevent harm. It also aims at stimulating the peaceful use of AI systems.” The International Telecommunications Union hosts the annual AI for Good Global Summit, which brings together stakeholders from various sectors to discuss the responsible development and deployment of AI technologies.
The European Union developed the first and most comprehensive AI legal framework in the world. From 2018, the EU adopted a series of policy reports, including, the Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI that establishes three guidelines that AI “(1) should be lawful, complying with all applicable laws and regulations, (2) it should be ethical, ensuring adherence to ethical principles and values and (3) it should be robust, both from a technical and social perspective since, even with good intentions, AI systems can cause unintentional harm." The Coordinated Plan on Artificial Intelligence was conceived as “the next step in creating EU global leadership in trustworthy AI.” There was also the Coordinated Plan on Artificial Intelligence 2021 Review. These efforts culminated in the AI Act, which seeks “to foster trustworthy AI in Europe and beyond, by ensuring that AI systems respect fundamental rights, safety, and ethical principles and by addressing risks of very powerful and impactful AI models.”
The global powers, the United States and China, have developed national AI policies that exert major global influence. In the US, they include the Executive Order on the Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence; the Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights that sets “five principles and associated practices to help guide the design, use, and deployment of automated systems to protect the rights of the American public in the age of artificial intelligence;” the National Artificial Intelligence Research and Development Strategic Plan 2023 Update to “ensure continued U.S. leadership in the development and use of trustworthy AI systems, prepare the current and future U.S. workforce for the integration of AI systems across all sectors, and coordinate ongoing AI activities across all federal agencies.”
China issued its New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Development Plan aimed to “build China’s first-mover advantage in the development of AI, to accelerate the construction of an innovative nation and global power in science and technology”; An Innovation Action Plan for Colleges and Universities to “encourage institutions of higher education to set their sights on the cutting-edge of global science and technology, continuously improve the ability to foster scientific and technological innovation, international cooperation and exchange, and provide training in the AI field, and provide strategic support to develop the next generation of artificial intelligence”; and the Ethical Norns for New Generation Artificial Intelligence that put forward “six basic ethical requirements, namely: the advancement of human welfare, the promotion of fairness and justice, the protection of privacy and security, the assurance of controllability and trustworthiness, the strengthening of accountability, and improvements to the cultivation of ethics.”
AI Developments in Africa
The development of AI policies in African countries at the continental level has been spearheaded by the African Union. The regional economic communities (RECs) have sometimes taken the lead at the subregional level. The number of individual states adopting AI strategies is growing, although it remains small. According to Brookings, by early 2024 “seven African nations (Benin, Egypt, Ghana, Mauritius, Rwanda, Senegal, and Tunisia) [had] drafted national AI strategies… Approximately 36 out of 54 African countries have established formal data protection regulations, offering a potential foundation upon which robust AI legislation can be constructed.” The African Union adopted The Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa (2029-2030), whose vision is to create “An Integrated and inclusive digital society and economy in Africa that improves the quality of life of Africa’s citizens, strengthen the existing economic sector, enable its diversification and development, and ensure continental ownership with Africa as a producer and not only a consumer in the global economy.”
This was followed in 2021 by the promulgation of the Artificial Intelligence for Africa Blueprint that had two primary objectives: “to outline the most relevant opportunities and challenges of the development and use of AI for Africa and how to address them," and “to make concrete policy recommendations to harness the potential and mitigate the risk of AI in African countries.” In the same year, the AU released a resolution linking AI to human rights, which urged governments to ensure that “the development and use of AI, robotics and other new and emerging technologies is compatible with the rights and duties in the African Charter and other regional and international human rights instruments,” and to “develop a regional regulatory framework that ensures that these technologies respond to the needs of the people of the continent.” In 2023, the AU Convention on Cybersecurity and Personal Data Protection, which was adopted in 2014 came into force. This year, in February 2024 the Digital Trade Protocol under the African Continental Free Trade Area was circulated “to promote and facilitate intra-regional digital trade.” Two months later In April 2024, AUDA-NEPAD White Paper on Regulation and Responsible Adoption of AI in Africa was adopted,
The RECs developed policies on science, technology and innovation that were later built on for AI. They included the 2008 Protocol on Science, Technology and Innovation by the Southern African Development Community (SADC) “to foster cooperation and promote the development, transfer and mastery of science, technology and innovation in Member States.” In 2022, SADC became the first REC to proclaim specific AI policy, the Windhoek Statement, which contained recommendations on AI and data governance, capacity-building and awareness-raising, investment and infrastructure, education, research, development and innovation, environment and disaster risk reduction, gender, and collaboration and partnerships. The other RECs are likely to follow suit.
In 2008, the Economic Community of West African States issued guidelines on the Harmonization of the Legal Framework Governing ICTs. Four years later ECOWAS adopted its Policy on Science, Technology and Innovation and Plan of Action as a regional framework. Maximizing digitalization was identified as a cross-cutting theme for “creating jobs, driving education and stimulate competitiveness and innovation” in ECOWAS Vision 2050. The East African Commission established the East African Science and Technology Commission in 2007 to “promote and coordinate the development, management and application of science and technology to support regional integration and socio-economic development.” In the EAC’s Vision 2050 adopted in 2016, science, technology and innovation was identified as a key component of education as an enabler for the successful implementation of the vision.
These policy instruments and visions, often unveiled with great fanfare, tend to wilt in the treacherous quicksand of implementation because of lack of political will, financing and investment, and weak monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. Nevertheless, they reflect Africa’s enduring aspirations for sustainable development, and they set the guideposts for higher education. Universities are expected and encouraged to participate in AI research projects that align with continental, regional and national priorities that can open opportunities for participation in regionally or internationally funded research projects and initiatives in STI including AI and facilitate collaboration with other African institutions and international partners. Higher education institutions are motivated to develop AI-focused curricula that address the continent's specific needs and challenges.
Higher Education and AI
The impact on higher education institutions of the various AI policy regimes is far reaching. The policies adopted by the United Nations encourage higher education institutions to integrate ethical considerations into their AI curricula, ensuring that future AI professionals are trained to develop and use AI responsibly, participate in international collaborations and initiatives, promote research that aligns with global ethical standards, and influence funding opportunities from international organizations, and encourage research that addresses global challenges such as climate change, health, and sustainable development.
According to the policies adopted by the European Union, universities must ensure that their AI research and applications comply with the EU’s stringent regulatory framework promoting the development of safe and trustworthy AI systems. The EU allocates significant funding to AI research through programs like Horizon Europe. Universities can leverage these funds to advance AI research aligned with EU priorities, such as human-centric AI and addressing societal challenges. The EU emphasizes building a skilled workforce. Universities may develop specialized programs and courses to train students in line with the EU’s AI strategy and ethical guidelines.
In the United States, significant federal funding is directed towards AI research, benefiting universities and fostering innovation. Universities often collaborate with industry leaders and government agencies on AI projects, enhancing practical applications and technology transfer. Emphasis on STEM education and AI-specific training programs to build a skilled workforce, offers universities opportunities to play a central role in talent development. In China, there is massive state investment in AI research and education, positioning universities as key players in achieving national AI goals. Universities are encouraged to establish AI research centers and collaborate with industry, fostering innovation and commercialization. Focus is on cultivating AI talent through specialized programs, international collaborations, and initiatives to attract global expertise.
The release of ChatGPT by OpenAI in late 2022 captured the popular imagination and provoked excitement and consternation in higher education institutions. AI was already embedded in the research, teaching, and operational activities of many universities, but the pressure intensified for them to develop AI policies and build capacities. Universities around the world, including those in the United States and Africa, embarked on developing AI policies to address the opportunities and challenges presented by artificial intelligence. These policies typically focus on ethics, governance, education, research, and societal impact, and how to integrate AI into education and institutional operations.
Global higher education AI policies have largely focused on four areas. First, they have developed ethical frameworks and guidelines to govern the responsible development and deployment of AI technologies, emphasizing transparency, accountability, fairness, and non-discrimination. They have formed dedicated committees or task forces to oversee the ethical implications of AI research and applications, ensuring compliance with ethical standards. Second, on research governance many have sought to put in place policies to ensure the privacy and security of data used in AI research, adhering to national and international data protection regulations, and promote open research practices, including the sharing of data and methodologies, to foster collaboration and transparency in AI research.
Third, in terms of educational policies institutions have focused on curriculum development and integrating AI into academic curricula across various disciplines, ensuring students are equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge, as well as increasing AI literacy among students, faculty, and the broader community to ensure a well-informed public. Fourth, public engagement and societal impact have often entailed developing programs to educate the public about AI, its benefits, and potential risks through workshops, seminars, and public lectures. Many universities have also actively pursued policy advocacy by engaging with policymakers to shape AI regulations and contribute to the development of national and international AI policies.
Policy development along these lines is evident in both American and African higher education systems. They have developed various approaches on AI, focused on eight areas: for academic programs and curriculum development (introducing new degree programs, course offerings, and interdisciplinary integration); research initiatives and centers (establishing AI research institutes, funding and grants, and collaborative projects); public service and engagement (contributing to policy development, public education, and community outreach), infrastructure and resources (investing in high-performance computing, data resources, AI labs and facilities); industry collaboration and technology transfer (forming strategic partnerships with tech companies, internships and co-ops, and commercialization support); ethical considerations and governance (establishing AI ethics committees, ethics curriculum, and responsible AI practices); entrepreneurship and innovation (creating startup incubators, hackathons and competitions, and innovation hubs); and workforce development (offering professional training programs for working professionals and career services for students).
While American and African universities share many similarities in their approach to dealing with AI, there are differences that largely stem from varying levels of resources, infrastructure, and regional priorities. America’s rich and research intensive universities can leverage more extensive resources and infrastructure to pursue a wide range of AI advancements than their poorer counterparts and many African universities which suffer from insufficient funding for AI research and development. This leads to challenges in acquiring state-of-the-art equipment and software. Many African universities lack modern labs and high-performance computing infrastructure necessary for advanced AI research. Shortage of qualified AI researchers and educators to train the next generation of AI professionals is another impediment. Moreover, AI curricula are not always updated regularly to keep pace with rapid advancements in the field. African countries and universities suffer from inordinately high rates of brain drain as significant numbers of skilled graduates and researchers leave for better opportunities abroad.
It cannot be overemphasized that the situation varies enormously among African countries and universities themselves, so we must avoid the trap of generalization and homogenization of the continent’s bewilderingly complex diversities including in higher education that is so common among bigoted observers and lazy pundits. For example, the flagship universities in the African Research Universities Alliance (ARUA) and some of the most innovative private university such as Ashesi in Ghana and USIU-Africa in Kenya have proactively engaged with artificial intelligence (AI) through various initiatives aimed at enhancing education, research, skills development, partnerships and collaboration, industry partnerships, policy advocacy and development, entrepreneurship and innovation, and public engagement and societal impact. These universities are making significant strides in building AI capacities through research centers, specialized programs, and international collaborations.
As amply evident at this conference, African researchers are developing AI solutions tailored to address local issues such as healthcare, agriculture, and education. Examples include AI-driven diagnostic tools for diseases prevalent in Africa, precision agriculture technologies, and personalized learning platforms. They are also making research contributions by publishing research in international journals and collaborating on global AI projects, gaining recognition and funding. Industry collaborations are growing as universities leverage partnerships with technology companies to access resources, training, and funding. This is evident in internships, collaborative research projects, and sponsored labs. Some African governments are providing supportive policies and increased investment in AI research and education. The innovation and entrepreneurship system is expanding in countries like South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria, Morocco, and Egypt with the rise of the startup ecosystem and the emergence of unicorns (startup companies valued at over USD 1 billion). Thus, by leveraging opportunities on the continent and through international partnerships and collaborations, some African universities are playing an increasingly crucial role in advancing AI research and innovation on the continent.
Transnational Collaborations for Science, Technology and Innovation
Partnerships with Europe, China, and the United States
The rapid growth of digital technologies has exposed the opportunities and perils of transnational competition and collaboration. At the global level we are witnessing intensifying techno-economic rivalries between the two superpowers, the United States and China. Jettisoning the age-old principles of free trade upon which it built its global economic prowess, the United States is frantically trying to stem China’s rise by imposing high tariffs on the latter’s high tech exports from solar panels to electric vehicles, and banning or trying to, its tech giants from Huawei, a leading global provider of information and communication technology, to the social media platform, Tik Tok. This is having repercussions in higher education relations and science diplomacy between the two countries as the flows of researchers and students decelerate sharply from their heyday in the 2000s and 2010s.
Other world regions are caught in the forces of decoupling between the United States and China. Europe finds itself facing what a story in The New York Times calls a “competitiveness crisis” as its share of the global economy continues to shrink, and its tech industry lags those of the US and China. Further, the EU is accused of “having too many regulations, and its leadership in Brussels has too little power. Financial markets are too fragmented; public and private investments are too low; companies are too small to compete on a global scale.” Yet, for Africa the EU remains a superpower as its largest trading partner followed by China, with the U.S. falling further behind (in 2021 it accounted for a mere 4% of Africa’s trade below India’s 6%, China’s 22%, and the EU’s 23%; 45% consisted of others).
The dynamics and dimensions of engagements between Africa, Europe, and the United States are evident in the higher education sector. They encompass a range of initiatives aimed at enhancing educational quality, research capabilities, and societal impact. These partnerships vary in their size and scope, reflecting the strategic priorities and resources of the involved regions.
Academic engagements between Africa and Europe encompass academic exchange programs (Erasmus+ Program that facilitates student and faculty exchanges, joint degree programs, and curriculum development, and bilateral exchange agreements); joint research initiatives (Horizon Europe and African-European Research Consortiums); capacity building and development programs (EDULINK and Intra-ACP Academic Mobility Scheme that seeks to enhance institutional capacity through training and curriculum development, and technical assistance and training); infrastructure and resource support (funding and grants, and resource sharing through access to digital libraries, research databases, and educational materials). European engagement is extensive, supported by significant funding from the EU and individual European countries. It covers a wide range of academic disciplines and societal issues, and has a strong emphasis on capacity building, research collaboration, and institutional development.
Educational engagements between Africa and China are focused on scholarship programs (Chinese Government scholarships for African students to study in China, establishment of Confucius Institutes to promote Chinese language and culture, often with associated scholarships); joint research and development projects (Belt and Road Initiative that supports research projects related to infrastructure, technology, and sustainable development, Sino-African Research Institutes that focus on areas like agriculture and health); capacity building and training programs (technical training centers, and faculty training programs); and infrastructure development (construction of university buildings and research labs, and provision of equipment and technology). The engagement has expanded significantly in recent years, reflecting China's strategic interest in Africa. It is focused on practical training and infrastructure, and it is often linked to broader geopolitical and economic initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative.
American-African educational engagements revolve around academic exchange programs (Fulbright Program and Partnerships for Enhanced Engagement in Research (PEER) that support research partnerships between African and American scientists); joint research initiatives (through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) collaborations for research projects in health and medicine, and Collaborative Research Centers for interdisciplinary research projects); capacity building and development programs (development of Centers of Excellence focusing on engineering, agriculture, and health, and leadership training programs); and infrastructure and resource support (grants from American institutions and government agencies, and access to digital libraries and research databases). The engagements are substantial, especially in health and technology, but more selective in focus compared to Europe. There is a strong emphasis on health, technology, and interdisciplinary research.
Comparing the partnerships between the higher education systems in Africa, Europe, China and the United States shows that in size, Europe boasts the largest and most comprehensive engagement in terms of breadth and funding, supported by EU-wide initiatives and substantial bilateral collaborations. Engagements with China are growing rapidly with significant investment in infrastructure and practical training, aligned with China's broader strategic interests in Africa. American engagements are significant but more focused, with high-impact initiatives particularly in health and technology. In terms of scope Europe’s engagements are broad and multifaceted, covering a wide range of academic disciplines, capacity building, and institutional development. For China they are focused on practical and strategic areas such as technical training, infrastructure, and research related to the Belt and Road Initiative. Those with the United States tend to be a lot more selective, focusing on Centers of Excellence, health research, and technology.
Transforming the Structure of Partnership
As I discuss in my forthcoming book, transnational higher education has been characterized by hierarchical, unequal, asymmetrical, and exploitative structures, systems, and flows. I propose a multipronged agenda for internationalization that interrogates its principles and practices and discusses how to change them for the better. There’s no time for me to bore you with the eleven areas of intervention that are examined in the book.
Suffice it to say, equitable and transformative collaborations in higher education in general, and STEM and AI in particular between African countries and institutions globally can be achieved by developing clear objectives and mutual goals, promoting capacity building and knowledge transfer, ensuring fair funding models, establishing long-term partnerships, creating inclusive governance structures, cultural and contextual sensitivity, and leveraging technology and digital platforms. While challenges such as resource disparities and political instability exist, they can be mitigated through balanced contributions, clear agreements, and flexible frameworks. The opportunities presented by both North-South and South-South collaborations, as well as the engagement of diaspora networks and international organizations, offer a robust pathway for advancing STEM and AI capacities in Africa.
Mutual trust and respect are fundamental. Most African academics are only too aware of the long histories of imperialism, colonialism, and neo-colonialism and their epistemic anchors of Eurocentrism and disparagement of African humanity and historicity. Even today, many of the partnerships are paternalistic, at best pragmatic, and rarely principled. For the sake of our collective future as we struggle against the multi-pronged crises confronting our societies, economies, polities, ecologies, and the very survivability of this beautiful, fragile, and endangered planet we must develop modes and models of collaboration befitting the gravity of the global challenges and our calling as intellectuals. The principles of a new agenda for collaboration were succinctly articulated recently by the African Research Universities Alliance (ARUA) and the Worldwide Universities Network (WUN): equity and mutual benefit, respect for diverse knowledge systems, capacity-building and ownership, open science and data sharing, and sustainability and impact.
African science has a lot to contribute to sustainability science that is raising its stake in scientific discourse and practice. The African scientific community is largely predisposed towards the characteristics of sustainable science: through its preferences for interdisciplinarity, preoccupation with problem oriented research, propensity for systems thinking, commitment to stakeholder engagement, focus on equity and justice, adaptive management and flexibility, integration of traditional and local knowledge, interest in policy relevance, and propensity for long-term perspective embedded in the imperatives of sustainable development.
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