Vedanta

Vedanta, one of the six systems (darshans) of Indian philosophy. The term Vedanta means in Sanskrit the “conclusion” (anta) of the Vedas, the earliest sacred literature of India. It applies to the Upanishads, which were elaborations of the Vedas, and to the school that arose out of the study (mimamsa) of the Upanishads. Thus, Vedanta is also referred to as Vedanta Mimamsa (“Reflection on Vedanta”), Uttara Mimamsa (“Reflection on the Latter Part of the Vedas”), and Brahma Mimamsa (“Reflection on Brahman”).

The three fundamental Vedanta texts are: the Upanishads (the most favoured being the longer and older ones such as the Brihadaranyaka, the Chandogya, the Taittiriya, and the Katha); the Brahma-sutras (also called Vedanta-sutras), which are very brief, even one-word interpretations of the doctrine of the Upanishads; and the Bhagavadgita (“Song of the Lord”), which, because of its immense popularity, was drawn upon for support of the doctrines found in the Upanishads.

No single interpretation of the texts emerged, and several schools of Vedanta developed, differentiated by their conceptions of the nature of the relationship, and the degree of identity, between the eternal core of the individual self (atman) and the absolute (brahman). Those conceptions range from the non-dualism (Advaita) of the 8th-century philosopher Shankara to the theism (Vishishtadvaita; literally, “Qualified Non-dualism”) of the 11th–12th-century thinker Ramanuja and the dualism (Dvaita) of the 13th-century thinker Madhva.

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Indian philosophy: Common concerns

The Vedanta schools do, however, hold in common a number of beliefs: the transmigration of the self (samsara) and the desirability of release from the cycle of rebirths; the authority of the Veda on the means of release; that brahman is both the material (upadana) and the instrumental (nimitta) cause of the world; and that the self (atman) is the agent of its own acts (karma) and therefore the recipient of the fruits (phala), or consequences, of action. All the Vedanta schools unanimously reject both the non-Vedic, “nay-saying” (nastika) philosophies of Buddhism and Jainism and the conclusions of the other Vedic, “yea-saying” (astika) schools (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, and, to some extent, the Purva Mimamsa).

The influence of Vedanta on Indian thought has been profound. Although the preponderance of texts by Advaita scholars has in the West given rise to the erroneous impression that Vedanta means Advaita, the non-dualistic Advaita is but one of many Vedanta schools.