isoprenoid

isoprenoid, any of a class of organic compounds composed of two or more units of hydrocarbons, with each unit consisting of five carbon atoms arranged in a specific pattern. Isoprenoids play widely varying roles in the physiological processes of plants and animals. They also have a number of commercial uses.

Isoprenoids in living organisms range in function from pigments and fragrances to vitamins and precursors of sex hormones. One of the most familiar natural substances, rubber, is a polyisoprene. Other commercially valuable isoprenoids are those used as flavourings, solvents, and raw materials for chemicals.

The five-carbon unit that constitutes the basic building block of isoprenoids is a hydrocarbon called isoprene. Isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) is a branched-chain unsaturated hydrocarbon, unsaturated meaning it contains one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. Isoprene has in fact two carbon-carbon double bonds. Isoprenoids contain from two to many thousands of isoprene units. The carbon backbone of an isoprenoid can have one or more functional chemical groups, such as hydroxyl and carbonyl, attached to it. These contribute to the diversity of isoprenoids.

The name terpene specifically refers to naturally occurring compounds that are derivatives of a single isoprene unit, but modern usage has become less precise, and the terms terpenes and isoprenoids are used interchangeably. The word terpene comes from an older spelling of turpentine (terpentine), a cleaner that is a mixture of isoprenoids (originally the resin of the terebinth plant).

The smallest terpene molecules—those containing 10 carbon atoms—are called monoterpenes. The larger molecules, increased by one isoprene unit at a time, are called sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, and tetraterpenes, respectively (see below Isoprenoid compounds). The monoterpenes are mostly volatile, which accounts for their fragrances. Terpenes of higher molecular weight are less volatile, although sesquiterpenes contribute to the flavours of some foods.

Isoprenoids of plants and animals

In plants, isoprenoids occur in the essential oils, which are found in the gummy exudates (oleoresins and latices) of many trees and shrubs. Plant isoprenoids effect growth (e.g., the hormone gibberellic acid) and contribute to red, yellow, and orange pigments (carotenoids). Chlorophyll, the green pigment essential in photosynthesis, is partly isoprenoid, as are certain alkaloids, nitrogen-containing compounds present in many plants. In animals, isoprenoids comprise various oily or waxy substances such as fish liver oils, wool wax, and the yellow pigments in egg yolk, butterfat, feathers, and fish scales.

Isoprenoids are not uniformly distributed among plants or animals, but certain classes of these compounds are typical of broad groups of tissues. For example, the nonvolatile substances present in resins produced by trees of the pine family contain diterpene carboxylic acids belonging to three types: abietic, palustric, and elliotinoic. The latices of a few species of plants contain the polyterpene hydrocarbons rubber or gutta-percha. Certain other species, including related species, of plants may be characterized by the presence of menthol, citral, camphor, limonene, or α-pinene.

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The role of the monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes produced by plants has not been established, although it has been suggested that they attract certain insects and repel others. Certain plants produce isoprenoids that are very similar to hormones involved in the development of insects that prey on those plants; the plant substances prevent the maturation of the insect, thus serving to defend the plant. The rosin acids of pine trees and the rubber and gutta-percha in latices of various plants may serve as wound-sealing agents.

Several isoprenoids are vitally important in metabolic processes in animals. Tetraterpene carotenoid pigments are the source of vitamin A, which is essential for vision and is involved in growth, reproductive function, and neural development in animals. Other vitamins that are wholly or partly isoprenoid include vitamin E, important in reproduction, and vitamin K, necessary for the blood-clotting process. The ubiquinones (coenzyme Q), which are involved in the derivation of energy by the oxidation of food, are also formed from isoprenoids. The livers of fishes and other animals are particularly rich in oils that are largely acyclic triterpenoid hydrocarbons, especially squalene. In insects, certain isoprenoid substances influence maturation and mating behaviour, communicate alarm or repel predators, or mark the way between the nest and sources of food.

In the 1980s scientists discovered that proteins in animals often have isoprenoid structures containing 15 or 20 carbon atoms attached to a particular side chain of the protein. The isoprenoid is added after the protein is otherwise complete. The so-called prenylated proteins do not function without the isoprenoid. These modifications occur in proteins that induce cancers, and scientists believe that drugs that block protein prenylation can be a means to prevent the spread of the disease in an individual.

Steroids, a class of compounds of great importance in both plants and animals, are not isoprenoids but are derived directly from them.

Uses of isoprenoids

Of the uses that humans have found for isoprenoids, many were established in antiquity—as ingredients of perfumes and incense, flavourings and spices, and varnishes and medicinals. Amber, a fossilized isoprenoid resin, has been prized as a gemstone since prehistoric times. Rubber was used by the Central and South American Indians before the Spanish conquest.

Modern applications of isoprenoids are extremely diverse. Turpentine, long employed as a solvent, is used mostly as a source of its individual components, which are raw materials for chemical processing. Products derived from turpentine include ingredients for perfumes, vitamin A, lubricant additives, insecticides, resins used in adhesives, and industrial chemicals. Rosin, usually modified by chemical treatment, is widely used to make inexpensive soaps and coating materials. Other isoprenoids that are valuable in industry and commerce include camphor, menthol, citronella oil, and natural rubber.