Theory of Metaphor and Rhetorics

This paper will be concerned with the way in which Grice’s Cooperative Principle is represented in the literature of both English and Arabic, and the interpretations and conclusions to which this can lead through showing the similarities and differences in those two languages with reference to the implementation of the cooperative principle and its maxims. Grice’s Cooperative Principle is an assumed basic concept in pragmatics. Grice has relocated the Cooperative Principle from philosophy to linguistics.

This Foreword, about robots, written in both poetry as well as prose, introduces the edited collection _Androids, Cyborgs, and Robots in Contemporary Culture and Society_, edited by Steven J. Thompson (IGI Global, 2018). The link on the thumbnail cover at
https://www.igi-global.com/book/_/179222 will take you directly to the published Foreword, which is open access. The attached PDF, sent directly to me from IGI-Global to use here, is presented with written permission of the publisher.

By examining the trans-disciplinary neologisms called "terminological junctions" in writings of Arakawa and Gins, one may find adequate conditions for making visible, and perhaps resolving a central paradox in the thinking of Gilles Deleuze, who exhorts us to "forge alliances" across scientific percepts, philosophical concepts and artistic constructs, and yet denies the adequacy of metaphor specifically, and tropes generally, because of the taint of representation and transcendence. Drawing on my earlier work which emphasizes the "agency" of tropes (by reference to Peter Galison and Bruno Latour) I attempt to recuperate tropes from within a Deleuzean frame, through an analysis of of "terminological junctions" as "shocks of thought."

A substantial number of studies of metaphor have rejected the notion that a statement must be literally false in order for it to be metaphorically interpreted. Self-evidently true statements that can, under appropriate circumstances, be metaphorically interpreted, are frequently used as evidence to support this position. This article contends that there is a substantial body of data that cannot be accounted for unless we assume that "literally true" metaphors presuppose one or more literally false implications. In so doing, the article first examines presupposition in relation to negation, and then proposes two diagnostic tests that allow us to see whether or not "literally true" metaphors imply literally false presuppositions.  Offprint available upon request ([email protected]).

RESUMO: Comunicação em prosa moderna2, livro pioneiro de Othon Moacyr Garcia, cuja primeira edição é de 1967, representa uma das mais importantes contribuições ao ensino de Língua Portuguesa no Brasil. No presente artigo, buscamos avaliar até que ponto seu breve estudo sobre a metáfora, inserido na primeira parte do livro, contribui para o estudo dessa figura de linguagem que tem sido drasticamente reavaliada na esteira dos estudos cognitivistas que se seguiram à publicação de Metáforas do Cotidiano (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Palavras-chave: Othon Moacyr Garcia; Comunicação em prosa moderna; metáfora

Im Unausgesprochenen der Metapher zeigt sich das Wesen des Bezeichnens. Die textuelle Abwesenheit des mit der Metapher Gemeinten, ihr beredtes Schweigen, entspricht dem Verweisen einer Spur, dem Legen einer Fährte. Das Zusammendenken ihre Hermeneutik, ontologischen Einbettung und philosophischen Ästhetik führt den Gedanken zu ihrem polysemen Potenzial.

Kap. 1: Genese einer Trope
Kap. 2: Tropische Hermeneutik
Kap. 3: Metapher der Zeit – Zeit der Metapher
Kap. 4: Perspektiven und Meridiane: Zur Ästhetik der Metapher

"Carter's music poses struggles of opposition, for instance in timbre (Double Concerto), space (String Quartet No. 3) or pulse (String Quartet No. 5). His preference for the all-interval tetrachords, 4–Z15 [0, 1, 4, 6] and 4–Z29 [0, 1, 3, 7], is also well known. From these facets of Carter's music, I develop a narrative interpretation of his Petrarch sonnet–inspired solo flute piece, Scrivo in Vento (1991). Specifically, I forge narrative pathways by imagining the two tetrachords as active agents opposed in competition. Previous Scrivo analyses (Capuzzo 2002; Childs 2006) stress continuity by revealing Q-transforms and common-note voice leading between the tetrachords. While acknowledging such features, my analysis emphasises oppositional struggle by tracing the tetrachords as separate entities which cooperate and conflict as they manoeuvre to outdo each other.

The analysis advances three theses: (1) it guides listening to and reading Scrivo in a way which resonates with Carter's concern for the aesthetics of oppositional struggle, his choice of a sonnet as inspiration and his affinity for all-interval tetrachords; (2) it shows that music-analytical detail can be organised into dramatic narratives by (a) projecting dramatic roles onto categories asserted by a formal theory and (b) treating the formal theory's relations metaphorically as actions performed by each role as the musical work unfolds; and (3) it shows how detailed pc-set analysis can support a Heraclitean view of music: a flux of opposing forces seeking and resisting unity."

Die nachstehenden Überlegungen sind dem alttestamentlichen Hirtentheologumenon gewidmet. Ausgehend von einem früheren Beitrag der Verfasserin zum Thema (BWANT 155, 2001), soll hier – in Anlehnung an Ernst Cassirer und Nelson Goodman – die Struktur noch präziser nachgezeichnet werden, in der sich in den einschlägigen Texten die Relation Hirt–Barmherzigkeit realisiert. Ziel ist das vertiefte Verständnis eines Hirtenideals, das eine im alten Orient einzigartige symbolische Prägnanz zeigt.

The growth of marketing within a political environment has altered the way in which political candidates address potential voters. Shifting focus from policy centred to image centric, candidates now utilise branding as a key component in their campaign strategy. However, concern arises surrounding the emotionally manipulative aspect of the branding concept. When combined with rhetoric features, the candidate can consciously manipulate the feelings of the audience to induce a desired response. This strategic manipulation of language has the potential to shape a candidate’s brand identity, using it as a device to conceal manipulative behaviours. This study focuses on the 2016 U.S presidential election, assessing the speeches of Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton and examined the extent to which manipulative tactics were embedded within the politicians’ brand identity. A multi-tiered investigative procedure was created to examine the link between the brand identity and the rhetorical features, metaphor and mythology. A mixed-method research approach was followed, assessing six speech transcripts through a two-level content analysis. The results identified clear disparities between Trump’s and Clinton’s brand distinctiveness, highlighting the strength of Trump’s brand identity. The study further revealed an overwhelming presence of rhetorical techniques embedded within both candidates’ brand identity. However, the degree to which these were implemented differed between the opponents.

The book was published by "Logos" in Berlin in 2018. — The reason for the theoretical sketch was the metaphorical model of conceptualism, alias the cognitive theory of metaphor: at least with this theory, metaphor itself has become a metaphor, and the classical, rhetorical metaphor has been sidelined. Kesslers book not only criticises existing theories of metaphor, but also develops from them a discursive synthesis that seeks to rehabilitate the classical metaphor as an everyday pragmalinguistic phenomenon. For this purpose, the nature of thought, the mental lexicon, predication and word semantics are also covered.

This paper focuses on the rule of metaphor in Paul Ricoeur's philosophy of language. In his MultiDisciplinary Studies in the Creation of Meaning in Language (1975), the French philosopher shows the fundamental power of human language in constructing the world we perceive. He reveals the processes by which linguistic imagination creates and recreates meaning through metaphor. He develops a "linguistic philosophy of freedom," and a hermeneutics of the subject based on human capabilities. According to Ricoeur, to exist is to act: speaking, doing, telling, and assuming responsibility for the act committed. The very "being" of human beings is to act and the effort to be. In this perspective, the human interiority is considered as dynamic production (enérgeia, conatus): it is a complex ontology of homo capax based on the human freedom and possibilities of language. Being as act and potentiality is the dominant meta-category that governs Ricoeur's philosophical anthropology, widely developed in the work Oneself as Another (1990).

Öz Batıda, temelleri felsefede atılan metafor kavramı; edebiyattan plastik sanatlara, siyaset biliminden sosyolojiye, işletmecilikten reklamcılığa kadar bir çok alanı etkilemiştir. Metaforun oluşturduğu kavramsal haritalar, hem toplumsal-kültürel izleri taşıyıp hem de yeni yaratımlara kapı aralamıştır. Metafor, kavramsal alanların eşitlenmesi sonucu ortaya çıkan geniş bir haritalamadır. Türkçenin hem standart dilinin hem sanat dilinin şekillenmesinde pay sahibi olan metaforlar, zihni haritalarda insani, toplumsal, coğrafi tüm etkilere dair izler taşır. Bu yapılanmanın farkında olan sanatçı; yeni, orijinal üretimleri ile dile kavramsal bir genişleme getirirken, okur zihnine de farklı yollardan ulaşım imkânına kavuşur. Orhan Veli Kanık, kendi çağı için modern bir söylem geliştirirken eski şiire dair ne varsa karşı durmayı tercih etmiş bir şairdir. Yeni şiir dilinin ve anlayışının inşasını, eski şiiri yıkarak yapabileceğine inanmıştır. İnsan zihninin işleyiş prensiplerinden biri olan metaforun Orhan Veli şiirinde tespit edilmesi, metaforun retorik karşısındaki yerinin tespiti için önemlidir. Abstract The concept of metaphor, which its foundations have been laid on philosophy in the West, effected various fields as literature, plastic arts, politics, sociology, industry, advertising. Conceptual maps that created by metaphor carried social-cultural traces and also paved a way for new creations. Metaphor is a vast mapping that generated/emerged from the equalization of conceptual areas. Metaphors have a role in shaping both the standard Turkish language and the language of art, and they bear the trace of individual, social and geographical influences in their conceptual mappings. While the artist, who is aware of this structure, brings a conceptual expanse to the language with his original productions, he also gains access to the minds of readers via different paths. Orhan Veli Kanık chose to stand against everything about former poetry while developing a modern statement for his era. He believed that construction of new poetical language and comprehension is possible by destroying the old poetry. Metaphor is a principle of human mind " s operation and identifying it on the Orhan Veli " s poetry carries importance for its place against the rhetoric.

Abstract
This qualitative study examined the meaning-making of white women investigating the racialized identity of Whiteness and interrogating how privilege is operationalized in day-to-day interactions in the U.S. society. An awareness of privilege does not have to be based in shame and guilt. It can be transformed into effective actions through embodied consciousness. Embodied ways of knowing can help to expand intellectual conversations into opportunities to practice engagement even when it is uncomfortable to do so. It is not possible to examine privilege without talking about race.
If conversations that might otherwise be uncomfortable, or threatening can be transformed by attending to the source of knowledge through the bodily experience, then resistance and discomfort can be used as opportunities to increase people’s awareness, challenge unconscious biases and hidden assumptions that keep racism and other forms of oppression alive and make them available for modification. This study illuminates the potential for joining feminist, anti-oppressive theories with embodied reflexivity to investigate how cultural locations socialize us to collude with structural inequities.
The work includes taking an embodied approach to learning. Honoring the body as a source of knowledge means being intentional about how our bodies experience resistance to change. Resistance is intended to represent a process of questioning and challenging dominant narratives, and cultural beliefs that reinforce institutional inequality. Resistance in this context includes a range of physical, emotional, and cognitive challenges, various levels of discomfort and unconscious barriers that could be difficult to identify. The scholarly significance of this study is contributing to our understanding of how Whiteness as a racialized identity is understood and managed in a country where Whiteness has been all but invisible to public policy. The aim of this work is to extend our scholarly conversations about the difference between intellectualizing the work and embodying the work.

Key Words: privilege, Whiteness, structural inequality, racism, white fragility, embodied ways of knowing, embodied learning, consciousness, culture, hidden biases, feminist pedagogy, anti-oppressive, critical empathy, intersectionality, resistance, cultural humility.

The metaphorical relation between the craft of weaving and singing or writing has often been noted and explained, not least with view to the etymological relation of text and textile. It is unsurprising, then, that it has become a commonplace assumption among literary critics to interpret the description of woven garments or scenes of weaving in literature as unequivocal representations of the literary texts themselves. The present contribution proposes to defamiliarise these overly familiar relations and make a fresh attempt at explaining the success of the metaphor of weaving for textual production: Engaging with the various stages and procedures of textile production at the upright loom common in Antiquity, the paper identifies two fundamental qualities of weaving that lie at the heart of its metaphorical appropriation: the linearity and coherence of the working process in weaving and its instantaneous materialisation in the woven garment. Drawing on a wide range of texts from ancient literature (Plautus, Cicero, Optatian, ps.Virgil’s Ciris, and ps.Tibullus’ Pagyricus Messallae), it is shown that the metaphor of weaving owes its success to the fact that it allows for reflection on the dialectics of ideality and materiality in texts. Against this backdrop, a reading of the Metamorphoses is put forward that interprets the Ovidian weaving scenes as a meditation on the metaphor iself.

يسعى هذا الكتاب إلى تقديم إجابة تفصيلية عن سؤال: كيف يمكن الوصول إلى بلاغة عربية جديدة؟ يطوف الكتاب، عبر عشرين فصلاً، في أرجاء البلاغات القديمة والحديثة والمعاصرة بهدف استكشاف مسارات، وابتكار توجهات، واقتراح رؤى وأفكار جديدة تُسهم في تجديد بلاغتنا العربية.
ينقسم الكتاب إلى ثلاثة أقسام تتحرك زمنيًّا من الماضي إلى المستقبل. يقدم الأول مقارباتٍ غير تقليدية لتاريخ البلاغة العربية والعالمية؛ بهدف تأسيس مسارات جديدة للدرس البلاغي، محفَّزة بإعادة بناء تصورات الماضي البعيد والقريب. يفحص القسم الثاني الدراسات البلاغية المعاصرة؛ بهدف رسم خريطة نقدية لمساراتها، وإنجازاتها، وفهم مآلاتها، وتقديم مقترحات لتطويرها، وتجديد فلسفة تدريسها حتى تساير تطور البحث فيها. أما القسم الثالث فيقدم الأسس النظرية لبلاغة الجمهور وتطبيقات عليها؛ بهدف استكشاف أفق من آفاق مستقبل البلاغة العربية الجديدة، يُشكِّل في الوقت الراهن واحدًا من التوجهات الأكثر جذبًا لاهتمام الباحثين.

This chapter discusses the place of metaphor in ancient and modern political rhetoric. It starts with the idea of metaphor in classical rhetorical and stylistic theories and juxtaposes it with modern cognitive theories, to note that the differences between Greek theorists’ and modern linguists’ views have often been misconstrued and overemphasised. It argues that the cognitive aspect of metaphor, well represented in Greek theorising, was sidelined in Roman and later tradition. It also analyses examples of some prominent types of metaphors in classical Athenian and recent rhetorical practice, including Cold War rhetoric, and discusses their real-life impact (including metaphors of states as structures and containers, personifications and body politic, and war as a sporting competition).

Interpreting sacred notions of the Hebrew Bible in a non-literal or figurative sense was part of the hermeneutical manoeuvres of Early Christian writers. They proceeded by deliteralization and metaphorization. These are meta-linguistic speech acts by which a word appearing in a given religious or doctrinal corpus and which usually is understood in its literal sense receives a non-literal meaning. Paul's notion of the " circumcision of the heart " which is intimately linked to that of the " inner Jew " (Romans 2: 28-29) was an attempt to internalise Jewish law-abidingness whilst abolishing its initial dignity. What exactly happens on a cognitive linguistic level in such instances? Drawing upon Fauconnier and Turner's Cognitive Integration Model the author develops a two-phase model at work behind Paul's metaphorizations. First the initial values (Jewishness and ritual circumcision) are projected onto a newly created target, namely inwardness. In a second move (retro-projection) the original value is abolished. This process can be termed a value-shift, in contradistinction to similar and precedential instances (cf. Deuteronomy, Jeremiah and Philo of Alexandria) which should be seen as value-extensions, the source value being preserved and merely extended to other realms of action. Corollaries of value-shift and value-extension are duty-shift and duty-extension, since values also imply duties. From a socio-religious perspective metaphorization goes along with a widening of the religious community. In the last resort, however, it reveals itself to be a moment in the genesis of new philosophical concepts, such as inwardness as the locus of redemption.

Language expressions in most languages are largely shaped by conceptual metaphors. However, the underlying metaphor that can help language learners better understand language expressions is often taken for granted. This article discusses how structural, orientational, ontological conceptual metaphors work in forming new language expressions or idioms. From this insight, several suggestions for EFL classes are made.

This paper deals with Cervantes’s Don Quijote and Kathy Acker’s punk, postmodern Don Quixote as two “aesthetic objects” that connect with each other across time and textual space in rhizomatic, non-linear fashion, in enriching and challenging ways. It presents an immanent view of these texts, through an engagement with some of the philosophical concepts of Ortega y Gasset, Deleuze & Guattari, and objected-oriented ontology philosophers, Graham Harman, and Levi R. Bryant.

The outline of this presentation would cover what organizations are, the Metaphors as propounded by Gareth Morgan, choose an organization and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the chosen organization as a metaphor, critique the chosen organization and analyse it in respect to the Organism Metaphor.
An organization is a social entity that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment. The word is derived from the Greek word organon, itself derived from the better-known word ergon which means “organ”- a compartment for a particular task.
A metaphor is a figure of speech that describes a subject by asserting that is, on some point of comparison, the same as another otherwise unrelated object.
Having defined these two terms above, let us now turn our attention to Organizational Metaphors.

Several scholars have cited the statement, “Even nirvāṇa is like an illusion, like a dream?” from the early Prajñāpāramitā as evidence of a “shocking” and “novel” Mahāyāna ontology (§1).  This paper examines three phases of historical development of the Buddhist metaphor of “illusion” (māyā) through Kittay’s perspectival approach and semantic field theory (§1.1).  An analysis of the metaphor in pre- and early Buddhism uncovers its birth in Vedic sources and its adoption by the Buddhists as the absence of a substantial Self in all phenomena without exception (§2).  In mainstream Buddhism, the mature metaphor took on a more cognicentric role due to its application specifically to the mind, but excluded the unconditioned, including nirvāṇa (§3).  By the early Prajñāpāramitā, the “illusion” metaphor was reestablished as both applying to the conditioned and unconditioned, but it also highlighted the cognitive error of perceiving a Self in what is Selfless, a position more epistemological than ontological (§4).  We conclude that “Even nirvāṇa is like an illusion, like a dream?” was thus not a “shocking” or “novel” Prajñāpāramitā creation.  We also reflect on the later literal doctrine of illusion, concluding that it was a transformation into common parlance of a now “dead metaphor” (§5). 

Keywords: illusion (māyā), metaphor, Buddhism, Prajñāpāramitā, semantic fields

The aspects exposed here are an oversimplification of highly debated issues in the two fields. The controversies take place not only between the two frameworks, but also within them. This extremely brief presentation is meant to show only the general characters and the main premises of the two parts involved in the long standing discussion.

Den Kontext dieser Arbeit bildet die Säkularisierungsdebatte der 1960er Jahre in Deutschland, genauer das sogenannte „Säkularisierungstheorem“, demzufolge viele als originell neuzeitlich geltende, das moderne Selbstverständnis prägende Inhalte und Konzepte tatsächlich säkularisierte christliche sind. Das Thema dieser Arbeit ist Hans Blumenbergs Kritik am Säkularisierungstheorem, die dieser im ersten Teil seiner Legitimität der Neuzeit vortrug und in welchem er sich insbesondere mit den Theorien Löwiths, Gadamers, Kosellecks und Schmitts befasst. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, 1/ ein geistesgeschichtliches Panorama der Säkularisierungsdebatte zu entwerfen, unter Berücksichtigung der Begriffsgeschichte von „Säkularisierung“ sowie des Gebrauchs der Kategorie Säkularisierung in verschiedenen Kontexten, 2/ eine konzise Darstellung der philosophischen Position Hans Blumenbergs in der Debatte sowie der Grundprinzipien einer Phänomenologie der Geschichte zu geben, 3/ eine Analyse der Argumente Blumenbergs unter rhetorischen Gesichtspunkten zu skizzieren. Die Methodologie der Arbeit ist a) geistesgeschichtlich: die jeweiligen Positionen und Argumente der Protagonisten werden als Beitrag zu einer größeren Debatte und als solche immer in ihrem Kontext betrachtet, wobei eine dynamische Darstellung der Grundgedanken und philosophischen Kernthesen der Autoren angestrebt wird; b) hermeneutisch: die Kernthesen der Geschichtsphilosophie Blumenbergs sowie die Grundlagen und Voraussetzungen der Theorien seiner Kontrahenten werden erschlossen; c) argumentationstheoretisch: der Standpunkt, von dem aus Blumenberg seine Thesen zur Geschichte formuliert sowie die Taktik, derer er sich in der Konfrontation bedient, werden untersucht.

THOUGHT or Imaginary EXPERIMENTS and METAPHORS‭ (‬volume‭ ‬3‭)

I intended to deal with the different sections or chapters in one volume,‭ ‬but as certain sections or chapters are very long,‭ ‬like chapter‭ ‬1,‭ ‬THEORIZING AND PHILOSOPHIZING‭ (‬VOLUME‭ ‬1‭)‬,‭ ‬I divided some of them into separate volumes,‭ ‬chapter‭ ‬2‭ ‬HEURISTICS AND PROBLEMSOLVING‭ (‬Volume‭ ‬2‭)  ‬and‭ ‬chapter‭ ‬3‭ ‬IMAGINARY EXPERIMENTS AND METAPHORS‭ (‬Vol‭ ‬3‭)‬.
In this volume,‭ ‬3,‭ ‬I deal with Thought and Imaginary Experiments,‭ ‬and then with the use of Metaphors‭ (‬as is the case with Weick and Cornelissen‭)‬,‭ ‬analogies and theories such as‭ ‬CMT,‭ ‬CB or BT,‭ ‬CMA metaphors‭ ‬.
My attitude towards thought and imaginary experiments,‭ ‬the use of metaphors and analogies in theorizing and in the doing of philosophy is this:‭ ‬one needs to look at the particular context in which these tools are employed and one must identify the specific function and role of a certain experiment or metaphor and the reasons why they are employed.

This chapter starts with an overview of important topics, perspectives, and problems in Cognitive Poetics, and next takes poetic *metaphor theory* as a central case. First, it discusses Conceptual Metaphor Theory in relation to Aristotle and poetic metaphor. Second, it expounds other cognitive views of metaphor and relates them to poetics: Interaction Theory, Relevance Theory, Blending Theory, Bidirectionality Theory, and the class inclusion hypothesis. Third, it discusses aspects of form. Fourth, it proposes an interdisciplinary template for further analysis. Finally, it connects its discussion of poetic metaphor with the aims of (cognitive) poetics.

Rhetorical tradition recognizes two distinct pairs of tropes within a homogeneous area – metaphor and a broad definition of metonymy on the one hand, and 'live' figures of speech and lexical extension on the other. Metaphor and metonymy are seen as different outcomes of a transfer of concepts, whereas lexical extensions are seen as the outcome of a process of crystallization of 'live' figures of speech. Neither these two fundamental points, nor the assumptions they rely on, i.e., the association between trope and transfer, and the idea that the 'conceptual pressure' provoked by the trope always affects the external focus, have been challenged by recent approaches. In this paper, however, we attempt to challenge both of these assumptions. Indeed, we show that on the one hand concept transfer is exclusive of the metaphor, while on the other the conceptual pressure in metaphoric projection does not affect the external focus but the coherent tenor. In so doing, we essentially redesign the topography of the field of tropology. The metaphor and metonym are profoundly different conceptual structures. Likewise, the live metaphor and lexical extension involve opposite orientations in conceptual pressure – while the lexical extension adapts the meaning of the word to the conceptual domain into which it is transferred, the living metaphor exploits the transferred concept to remodel the new domain.

This commentary appraises the approach and methodology used in a visual interpretation of Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra in the form of graphic narrative art. While not alone in the field of graphic novel adaptations, this research project presents, for the first time in English, an illustrative interpretation of all four parts of Thus Spoke Zarathustra, one that tackles Nietzsche’s challenging concepts in a more philosophically informed light through the praxis of the visual aphorism, which is posited as a visual counterpart to Nietzsche’s chosen form of rhetoric.
The interpretation and depiction of Nietzsche’s concepts are considered alongside other attempts by graphic artists to represent literary and philosophical ideas in a visual format. Attention is also paid to Nietzsche’s distorted public reputation and, in particular, the way that his concept of the Übermensch has become synonymous with the DC character, Superman. Given how entrenched such an association is, this graphic reworking has sought to draw profitably on the links in order to make more contemporary sense of Nietzsche’s avatar, Zarathustra.
Not only does this thesis contribute to knowledge in being the first comprehensive reworking of all four parts of Nietzsche’s text in graphic format, but also in developing the concept of the ‘visual aphorism’ as a powerful technique for representing complex philosophical and conceptual ideas.

This article analyses the possibility to look at living systems as biorhetorical systems. Rhetorics of biology, which studies the rhetoric of biological discourse, is distinguishable from biorhetorics, which attempts to analyse the expressive behaviour of organisms in terms of primordial (un¬conscious) rhetoric. The appearance of such a view is a logical consequence from recent developments in new (or general) rhetorics on the one hand (e.g., G. A. Kennedy’s claim that rhetoric exists among social animals), and from the biosemiotic approach to living systems on the other hand.