Rare Earth Elements

This article presents a historical geography of rare earth elements from their discovery to the atomic age with a focus on the period between 1880 and 1960 in order to lend greater depth to the growing body of scholarship on the relationship between rare earth elements and global political change. Drawing on archival and field research undertaken in the United States, China, Brazil, and Germany between 2011 and 2014, this article advances the following argument. Rare earth elements, and the production of geological knowledge about them, have entangled with contentious politics since their first industrial applications in the late 19th century. The historical geography of rare earth exploration and extraction is defined by a fundamental tension between the military-industrial necessity of these elements and the hazards associated with their production. This tension played a definitive role in international colonial, Cold War, and atomic politics.

Recently, a novel approach to a highly sensitive and quantitative detection of rare earth element (REE) ions including La3+, Eu3+ and Tb3+, by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, has been reported. The detection of REE ions is based on the catalytic nature of REE ions targeting the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), thus monitoring of the ions can be achieved by reading the level of intact DNA by PCR. Despite of its high sensitivity (at ppb to ppt levels), the conventional PCR-based REE detection protocol requires certain length of time (1-2 hours). In the present study, we modified the PCR-based REE detection protocols by employing the high-speed PCR, and performed the automated and rapid detection of La3+ in small-sized aqueous samples within 5min.

All major rivers in northwestern Germany that flow into the North Sea, including the Weser River, display rare earth element (REE) patterns with large positive gadolinium (Gd) anomalies that indicate the presence of anthropogenic Gd derived from contrast agents used in magnetic resonance imaging. This microcontaminant cannot be removed by common sewage treatment technology and enters rivers and lakes with the discharge from waste water treatment plants. As elsewhere, a large fraction of the natural dissolved REE in the Weser River are associated with colloids. These colloids aggregate during mixing of freshwater and seawater in the low-salinity part of the Weser Estuary and the dissolved REE are partially removed from the river water together with the colloids. In marked contrast to the natural REE, the anthropogenic Gd behaves conservatively during this estuarine mixing and transits through the Weser Estuary almost unaffected. This indicates that the speciation of anthropogenic Gd is different from that of natural Gd and suggests a long environmental half-life of the anthropogenic Gd complexes used as contrast agents. The amount of anthropogenic Gd introduced into seawater via rivers is significant and produces anthropogenic positive Gd anomalies in coastal seawater. This is observed in the southwestern North Sea, off the coast of the East Frisian Islands, where anthropogenic Gd is mostly derived from the rivers Rhine and Thames. Its long environmental half-life and conservative estuarine behaviour suggest that anthropogenic Gd might be utilized as a pseudo-natural far-field tracer for truly dissolved riverine REE input into seawater and for discharge from waste water treatment plants and for sewage in river, ground and drinking water. The widespread distribution of anthropogenic Gd is an example of how the increasing use of “exotic” (ultra)trace elements in high-tech processes will in the future significantly hamper studies of the distribution and geochemical behaviour of such elements in natural systems.

Gadolinium chelates have been used since 1988 as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and produce positive anthropogenic Gd anomalies in rare earth element (REE) patterns of river and lake waters. These Gd compounds are not removed in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) due to their high stabilities, and are transferred to surface waters with the clearwater discharge from WWTP. Through natural and induced bank filtration, the anthropogenic Gd is also transported into groundwater. To date, there are no related acute health risks known, but the potential long-term effects of exposure to low doses have not been studied.
Here REE data is presented for tap water from the City of Berlin, Germany, a metropolitan area that is known for its anthropogenic Gd-rich rivers and groundwater. Natural and induced bank filtration play important roles in Berlin’s freshwater resource management. Therefore, the extent to which municipal tap water that is used as drinking water is affected by anthropogenic Gd was investigated. Large positive Gd anomalies were found in tap water samples from the western districts of Berlin, indicating the presence of up to 18 ng/L of anthropogenic Gd on top of a geogenic background of 0.54 ng/L. In marked contrast, the amount of anthropogenic Gd in tap water from the eastern districts of Berlin is negligible to minor (maximum of 0.18 ng/L on top of a geogenic background of 0.26 ng/L). This strong regional difference likely results from the specific historical situation of Berlin, where before the re-unification of Germany in 1990, natural and induced bank filtration were necessities in isolated West Berlin, but unimportant in East Berlin, a situation that has seen little change during the past 20 years. Thus, drinking water resources in the western part of Berlin are more strongly affected by anthropogenic Gd than those in the eastern part. The high anthropogenic Gd concentrations found in some tap waters in Berlin clearly show that the Gd initially used as contrast agent is removed neither during natural nor artificial water treatment. This is further evidence for the high stability and long environmental half-lives of these compounds. Considering that the amount of anthropogenic Gd in the Havel River in Berlin has increased more than 4-fold over the past 15 years and that water migration from the Havel River to the groundwater wells take years to decades, the amounts of anthropogenic Gd in West Berlin tap water will increase further over the next few years. Due to its presence in tap water that is consumed as drinking water, millions of people are exposed to low doses of these anthropogenic Gd chelates. Additional data for the City of London, UK, for example, indicate that this is not a local phenomenon confined to the City of Berlin, but rather a common feature of tap water in metropolitan areas and megacities in countries with highly developed health care systems. Hence, the REE distribution in tap waters used for human consumption should be monitored, especially since the anthropogenic Gd chelates can also be used as tracers for emerging microcontaminants such as steroids, pharmaceuticals and personal care products.

The rare earth elements (REE) possess a beneficial combination of chemical and physical properties, making them valuable for most advanced branches of engineering and technology. Alternative sources of REE are desirable due to limited reserves of conventional REE containing minerals over the world combined with disproportionate supply over demand in the commodity markets. This study investigated the occurrence of REE and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in Cretaceous Nigerian coals for prospective industrial applications. Results show that the coals' crystalline mineral matter comprises quartz, kaolinite, and illite with minor quantities of feldspar, hematite, magnetite, calcite, dolomite, which indicate detrital mineral origins. Elemental relationships (such as Al 2 O 3 /TiO 2 , Cr/Th vs. Sc/Th, and Co/Th vs. La/Sc) suggest sediment-source regions with mafic, intermediate or felsic compositions. REE are either strongly fractionated or characterized by light-enrichment along with outlook coefficient (Coutl) values that suggest the coals are prospective substitute sources for REE and yttrium (REY) recovery. Several minerals including jarosite, goethite, epsomite, ferrohexahydrite, natrojarosite, rozenite, and gypsum were detected in trace amounts. REE mineral phases were not identified but only amorphous phases containing Ce, La, Nd, Th, Pr, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, and Hf. Maceral composition (high vitrinite), presence of ironcontaining minerals (hematite and magnetite), high carbon contents, reduced volatile matter and low ash content favoured the formation of naturally occurring multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNTs) structures in Maiganga (MGA) coal. Hence, the present study is the first scientific report on the naturally occurring REEs and MWC nanophases in Cretaceous coals from the Benue Trough.

The Master's programme Industrial Ecology is jointly organised by Leiden University and Delft University of Technology. Neodymium applications, especially the neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) permanent magnet, have substantially enabled continuous miniaturization in the electronics sector and have become increasingly vital to electric mobility and direct-drive wind turbines. With 86% of neodymium primary production, separation and refining monopolized by China combined with its significance to the global (decarbonizing) economy, neodymium has been identified as a critical raw material across virtually every non-fuel mineral criticality assessment hitherto. Through quantifying, modeling and characterizing neodymium stocks and flows using material flow analysis (MFA) and scenario mapping, this research aims to determine the theoretical potential of the neodymium urban mine using the an assessment in the Netherlands in 2010 and 2030 as a case study. Results demonstrate the salience of ...

The petrographic and geochemical composition of the Dharla River sediments has been examined to infer their sediment type, degree of weathering, provenance, and tectonic settings. Petrographically the sediments are characterized by the high quartz content (64.97 to 74.24 wt%), followed by feldspar (7.04 to 15.20 wt%), mica (5.38 to 19.92 wt%), lithic fragment (3.46 to 8.14 wt%), and heavy minerals (1.98 to 6.94 wt%). Geochemical composition shows marked enrichment of SiO 2 (mean ~ 74.16%) and a strong negative correlation with the other major oxides because of quartz dilution. The Chemical index of alteration (CIA, 45.52 to 63.51); Plagioclase index of alteration (PIA, 43.13 to 66.55); W index (20.15 to 32.86) and Rb/Sr ratios (0.35 to 0.98) suggest low to moderate intensity of chemical weathering in the source area. Geochemical classifications of the studied samples show mostly litharenitic immature type of sediments also reflects high index of compositional variability (ICV, 0.96 to 1.72). The ternary diagrams of Al 2 O 3-(CaO + Na 2 O)-K 2 O (or A-CN-K) and of mafic rocks, felsic rocks and degree of weathering of the source rocks (or MFW) and several immobile trace element ratios (e.g. light rare earth element/heavy rare earth element or LREE

Flotation separation of bastnaesite from carbonate gangue has proved to be an exceedingly difficult task, yet it remains the dominant unit operation for beneficiation of rare earth element-bearing minerals. The high specific gravity of these minerals (bastnaesite and monazite) in relation to the gangue (calcite) suggests the opportunity for beneficiation through gravity separation. The purpose of this investigation is to determine the applicability of centrifugal concentrators to the beneficiation of a bastnaesite ore from southern California containing large amounts of calcite gangue. Mineral Liberation Analysis (MLA), heavy liquid separation, and a Falcon Concentrator were used to show the amenability of this ore to gravity separation. From a feed averaging 12% calcium, 6.7% barium, and 3.4% total rare earth elements (TREE: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, samarium, and neodymium), an optimum product of 14.5% calcium, 13.13% barium, and 7.8% rare earth elements was successfully generated with the Falcon using a feed with the finest particle size distribution, lowest feed rate, and lowest G-force.

Rare earth element (REE) concentrations were measured in groundwaters collected from wells finished in a fractured, rhyolitic (Cuatralba Ignimbrite) aquifer from the La Muralla region of the central Mexican State of Guanajuato. The study site is located within the Faja Volcanica Transméxicano (i.e., Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt), an extensive region of active volcanism within central México. La Muralla groundwaters are relatively warm (32.2 ± 2.7 °C), dilute Na-Ca-HCO3 waters (5.1 mmol/kg ≤ I ≤ 9.5 mmol/kg) of circumneutral pH (7.27 ≤ pH ≤ 8.01). Concentrations of REEs in La Muralla groundwaters are exceedingly low, as demonstrated by Nd values, which range from ∼ 10 pmol/kg to 34 pmol/kg. La Muralla groundwaters exhibit enrichments in the heavy REEs (HREE) over the light REEs (LREE) compared to Average Shale, as well as volcanic rocks from the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, including rhyolitic volcanic rocks similar to those of the Cuatralba Ignimbrite aquifer. Shale-normalized Yb/Nd ratios of La Muralla groundwaters range from 1.85 to 6.55, with a mean (± standard deviation) of 4.2 ± 1.2. Rare earth element concentrations for La Muralla groundwaters are normalized to the average REE values of 27 different calc-alkaline rhyolites (from the literature) from the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The average Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt rhyolite-normalized Yb/Nd ratios for La Muralla groundwaters range from 1.57 to 5.55, with a mean (± standard deviation) of 3.52 ± 1. Speciation calculations predict that REEs occur principally as carbonate complexes in La Muralla groundwaters, with LREEs predominantly in the form of positively charged, carbonato complexes (LnCO3 +), and to a lesser extent, free metal ions (Ln3+), and HREEs chiefly in solution as negatively charged, dicarbonato complexes (Ln(CO3)2 −). The speciation model predictions suggest that the HREE enrichment of La Muralla groundwaters originate from solution and surface complexation reactions within the system. Specifically, the preferential complexation of HREEs as negatively charged, dicarbonato complexes acts to stabilize HREE is solution owing to both the strength of these complexes and their low affinity for aquifer surface sites. Because La Muralla groundwaters are of circumneutral pH, surface complexation sites within the Cuatralba Ignimbrite are expected to predominantly be negatively charged. Therefore, because LREEs occur primarily as positively charged, carbonato complexes in La Muralla groundwaters, they are preferentially removed from solution owing to complexation to aquifer surface sites.

Europium L III-edge X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectra were recorded for a series of synthetic glasses and melts equilibrated over a range of oxygen fugacities (fO 2 s, from −14 to +6 logarithmic units relative to the quartz–fayalite–magnetite, QFM, buffer) and temperatures (1250–1500 °C). Eu 3+ /ΣEu (where ΣEu = Eu 2+ + Eu 3+) values were determined from the spectra with a precision of ±0.015. Eu 3+ /ΣEu varies systematically with fO 2 from 0 to 1 over the range studied, increases with decreasing melt polymerisation and temperature , and can be described by the empirical equation:Eu 3þ =ΣEu ¼ 1 1þ10 −0:25 log f O 2 −6410=T−14:2Λþ10:1 , where Λ is the optical basicity of the melt and T is the temperature in K. Eu 3+ /ΣEu in glasses and melts equilibrated at the same conditions are in excellent agreement for Fe-free systems. For Fe-bearing compositions the reaction Eu 2+ + Fe 3+ = Eu 3+ + Fe 2+ occurs during quenching to a glass and the high temperature value of Eu 3+ /ΣEu is not preserved on cooling; in situ measurements are essential for determining Eu 3+ /ΣEu in natural melts.

Altın zenginleştirme, gümüş zenginleştirme, bakır zenginleştirme, demir zenginleştirme, antimuan zenginleştirme, molibden zenginleştirme, Alüminyum zenginleştirme, nikel zenginleştirme, otoklav liçi, tank liçi, yığın liçi, gravite ile zenginleştirme, sallantılı masa, kromit zenginleştirme tesisi,

A method is described for the inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometric (ICP-OES) determination of rare earth elements (REE), yttrium (Y), thorium (Th) and phosphorus (P) in monazite samples. Sample preparation was carried out by fuming with sulphuric acid followed by fluoride fusion of the remaining residue. The method was validated using the single laboratory approach by assessment of analytical performance characteristics like specificity, linearity, range, accuracy and precision. Spectral interferences were observed in the case of some heavy REE (Ho,Er,Tm) by light REE (Nd) and correction factors were deduced and applied. The limit of quantification, instrument linearity and the method range were evaluated. Relative standard deviation (RSD) values ranging from 2.6 to 10.2 % were obtained for repeatability studies and RSD values ranging from 1.7 to 11.1% for intra-lab reproducibility studies. Accuracy was established by application to a monazite certified reference material (CRM) and also through comparison of results obtained by present method with those obtained by an alternate method. The validation results were compliant with the acceptance criteria for the various parameters assessed. A simple procedure has been described for the estimation of associated measurement uncertainty using the GUM "bottom-up" modelling approach and results presented in this paper. The validated method was applied to the determination of REE, Y, Th and P in some monazite samples from India. Capsule Summary: Rare Earth elements, yttrium, thorium and phosphorus in monazite samples were determined in monazite samples by ICP-OES using single sample preparation procedure after validation using a single laboratory approach and estimation of associated measurement uncertainty using GUM bottom-up approach. The method was applied to Indian monazite samples and good results were obtained. Cite This Article As: V. Padmasubashini, B. Sunilkumar, M. Krishnakumar and S. B. Singh. Method validation and uncertainty for the determination of rare earth elements, yttrium, thorium and phosphorus in monazite samples by ICP-OES. Chemistry International 6(3) (2020) 98-109. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3516551

Rare earth elements (REE) are essential for the manufacture of high-technology products. Recently, the US Department of Energy has raised a serious concern over the supply risk of 5 critical REE in the next 15 years. The criticality of the supply risk, which has drawn increased global attention, results from the growing REE market demand and limited supply. China, with over half of the world " s reserves, has dominated the production and supply of REE, accounting for about 90% of the global demand over the years. Currently, China " s practice of domestic stockpiling and export restrictions, in tandem with the depletion of its high grade resources, is one of the major issues of global supply shortfall. REE generally occur in ore deposits with other elements and compounds as trivalent cations in mineral phases such as carbonates, oxides, halides, phosphates, and silicates. Froth flotation and physical separation techniques such as magnetic, multi-gravity and electrostatic separation have been exploited in the beneficiation of REE minerals. This paper reviews the global REE production, as well as demand and supply. REE minerals that have been exploited on commercial scale have also been presented. We have also reviewed REE minerals separation by froth flotation and physical separation techniques. A wide range of REE minerals flotation and physical separation test results are summarized. Selected REE processing plant operations and performance are also presented. This review amasses the available beneficiation techniques for REE minerals and ascertains areas for further research.

In Malaysia, there were two rare earths processing plants namely Asian Rare Earth (ARE) and the Malaysian Rare Earth Corporation Plant (MAREC) in Perak, which were operated until 1992 and were subsequently closed due to problems pertaining to disposal of large amount of radioactive waste. Recently, Lynas Advanced Materials Plant (LAMP) has become one of the largest rare earths processing plant in the world producing rare earth elements (REE) in Gebeng, Pahang. The primary raw material is lanthanide concentrate (LC) which is imported from Mount Weld mine in Australia and shipped to Malaysia. LC is produced from lanthanide ore after mining and mineral processing. The ore has a lower impact than Bayan Obo, Mountain Pass and adsorbed clay deposits, given the small footprint of the mine itself and the remoteness of the location. The type of ore being mined (rare earth phosphates: carbonatite, monazite) may have higher thorium content than bastnasite ore from the Chinese or American mines but still far below radiation concerns. This paper was written to review the processing flowsheet at the Lynas Advanced Materials Plant (LAMP), the environmental impact associated with the processing of the said ores and the sustainability of the operation.

Les terres rares, une famille de 17 éléments chimiques, sont des métaux utilisés dans de nombreuses applications liées à la haute technologie et à l’énergie renouvelable, notamment dans les éoliennes et dans les voitures hybrides. Les prévisions économiques quant à l’avenir des terres rares sont unanimes : la demande va croître dans les années à venir. Elles cachent néanmoins un défaut ; leur processus de minage est polluant, et occasionne des risques radioactifs. Les Etats-Unis ont dominé le marché des terres rares depuis les années 1950 jusqu’en 2002, date de mise à l’arrêt de celle qui fut la plus grande usine de production de terres rares du monde, Mountain Pass. Sa fermeture est due à deux facteurs : la pollution trop importante qu’elle occasionnait, et la perte de compétitivité face à la Chine, dont la politique visait à exporter ces produits à bas prix. La main passe alors à la Chine qui siège en monopole sur le marché, et a préparé sa domination commerciale grâce à une vision politique à long terme. En 2005, la République populaire change de stratégie et impose des restrictions à l’exportation qui font augmenter les prix jusqu’à un pic de tension en 2010 et un embargo lancé sur le Japon à cause d’un incident au large des îles Senkaku. En 2012, un recours est lancé contre la Chine devant l’Organisation Mondiale du Commerce (OMC). Notre hypothèse était que la mise à l’agenda des terres rares par l’Union européenne a été provoquée par cet incident. Notre identification de l’émergence du problème nous a appris que ce n’était pas exact.
A l’aide du modèle séquentiel de Jones, nous détaillons l’élaboration de la politique publique de l’Europe. Elle a identifié le risque lié aux matières premières depuis 2008, notamment grâce à des alertes lancées par des lobbies industriels. Les événements de 2010 font alors plutôt office de « déclic » pour l’Union européenne : la sécurité de sa chaîne d’approvisionnement n’est officiellement plus garantie, il lui faut élaborer des solutions. Les intérêts et les valeurs de la Commission européenne, des entreprises, des lobbies et des Etats membres s’agrègent. L’Europe lance alors l’Initiative Matières Premières qui définit les trois grands axes de la politique européenne relative aux matériaux critiques. De nombreuses autres politiques connexes se structurent autour de ces piliers. L’Europe a trois intérêts en jeu (la stabilité de l’approvisionnement, l’innovation technologique, la préservation de l’environnement) et confère deux dimensions de « valeur » à ses politiques (libéralisme économique, respect de l’environnement). Nous observons que la plus « tenace » de ces dimensions est la valeur économique. Pour appliquer sa politique, la production d’alternatives est valorisée. Elles seront mises en œuvre via quatre moyens : accords, lois, création d’organisations coupoles, et projets de recherche et développement. En nous basant sur la triade « valeur, intérêt et choix », et en voyant l’intérêt comme « construit », nous dénotons un comportement politique paradoxal de la part de l’Union européenne par rapport à sa « valeur » de préservation de l’environnement.

Macedonian ruby, a unique local raspberry-pink variety of this beautiful gemstone is arriving to be steadily exploited in Macedonia as well. The Republic of Macedonia is actually the only country in mainland Europe to have naturally occurring rubies. Macedonian rubies have a unique pale-raspberry color, characteristically pink and red colored corundum crystals. Prismatic crystals of the blue colored variety are rarely found in Macedonia.

E-waste management is a serious challenge across developed, transition, and developing countries because of the consumer society and the globalization process. E-waste is a fast-growing waste stream which needs more attention of international organizations, governments, and local authorities in order to improve the current waste management practices. The book reveals the pollution side of this waste stream with critical implications on the environment and public health, and also it points out the resource side which must be further developed under the circular economy framework with respect to safety regulations. In this context, complicated patterns at the global scale emerge under legal and illegal e-waste trades. The linkages between developed and developing countries and key issues of e-waste management sector are further examined in the book.

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A supplementary teaching to the Arcane Teaching of Alchemy

In the "Arcane Lessons" you have seen that the individual is but a Centre of Consciousness and Force in the great Life Principle, Cosmic Will or SPIRIT. As Aphorism XII has informed you: "There is but One Life and not Many Lives. Sepa- is but relative and partial --- illusory --- the creative fiction of the Cosmos. . . In the Cosmic Will there is but One Life in which, and by which, is manifested the Many
Just as the Cosmic Will manifests the Cosmic activities and forms, so may the Individual Will materialize activities and forms on its own plane. There is but one difference between the Cosmic will and the Individual Will—the difference in degree.

All Will, from the Cosmic Will to the feeblest Individual Will is identical in nature, although widely differing in degrees of power. In fact, the Individual Wills are but focalized centres in the great Cosmic Will, varying greatly in power and manifestation.

This being so, it follows that the same laws, and principles are applicable in all manifestations of Will, from the highest to the lowest.
In the Arcane Teaching we have described the principles and laws underlying the manifestation of Mentalism, and there is no occasion for entering into this phase of the subject in this little book. Instead, we shall proceed at once to give you the Formulas for the actual demonstration and manifestation of these principles.

We refer you to the Arcane Teaching for the explanation and the theory. In this chapter we shall give you "Mentalism in a Nutshell," condensing into its limited space the essence and substance of what could be expanded into several books.

Formula for Positivity.
In the laws of Mentalism there is a fundamental principle that the positive always dominates the negative—the negative is always subordinate to the positive.

Everything has its keynote of positivity. And that keynote depends upon the degree of Will-Consciousness. When one becomes well polarized in Will-Consciousness he is intensely positive to those around him—not only to persons but also to environment and conditions.
This positivity is, of course, dependent upon the degree of Will manifested by the individual. Remember, we say the degree of Will, not the amount or quantity of Will.
The average person, when he thinks of Will Power is apt to think of a large amount of quantity of Will which must be manifested by the individual in order to produce its effect. This is erroneous. There can be no such thing as quantity or amount of Will.

Lanthanide ions display intense photoluminescence under UV light. When incorporated in glass they are used not only in technological applications, but in artworks as well. Luminescent soda-lime silicate glasses with compositions similar to those used in utilitarian and decorative applications, doped with small amounts of different lanthanide oxides, namely europium, terbium, cerium, dysprosium, samarium and thulium, have been prepared in our laboratories. A few examples of their application in artworks will be presented.

For a century, the geopolitics of energy has been synonymous with the geopolitics of oil and gas. However, geopolitics and the global energy economy are both changing. The international order predominant since the end of World War II faces mounting challenges. At the same time, renewable energy is growing rapidly. Nevertheless, the geopolitics of renewable energy has received relatively little attention, especially when considering the far-reaching consequences of a global shift to renewable energy.

The paper starts with a discussion of seven renewable energy scenarios for the coming decades: the IEA’s World Energy Outlook 2016, the EIA’s International Energy Outlook 2016, IRENA’s REmap 2016, Bloomberg’s New Energy Outlook 2016, BP’s Energy Outlook 2016, Exxon-Mobil’s Outlook for Energy 2016 and the joint IEA and IRENA G20 decarbonization scenario.

Some of these are forecasting while others are backcasting scenarios. While all the forecasting scenarios envisage growth in renewable energy, none anticipate a revolution in which renewable energy use surpasses consumption of any of the fossil fuels in the next several decades. In contrast, the backcasting scenarios posit a future in which the world employs a radically different energy mix where consumption of renewables eventually surpasses that of fossil fuels. In all three backasting scenarios covered here, the share of renewables of total primary energy reaches 30-45% in 2035 or 2040 and 50-70% in 2050.

The paper then discusses seven mechanisms through which renewables could shape geopolitics.

Critical materials supply chains. As the transition to renewable energy accelerates, cartels could develop around materials critical to renewable energy technologies. Even if these cartels are unable to achieve the kind of impact that OPEC did in the 1970s oil market, they might be able to exert influence over consumers of these materials. Rare earth elements are widely used in clean energy technologies, including solar panels and wind turbines. Although rare earths elements are found in many countries around the world, they are usually found in dilute concentrations and are often difficult to extract. Today almost all mining, production and processing of rare earth elements takes place in China. Lithium, cobalt and indium are also widely used in clean energy technologies and might in some circumstances present opportunities for cartelization.

Technology and finance. In a world in which renewables are the dominant source of energy, capital for investment and technology may increasingly become sources of international cooperation or rivalry. First, increased tensions between developing and developed countries could develop over the transfer of technology. Second, conflict over renewable energy infrastructure could develop, especially if new asymmetric dependencies arise between major producers and consumers of renewable energy. Finally, it is not clear whether the expansion of renewable energy will involve a shift to more decentralized and distributed energy generation (similar to farming) or to larger companies with the financial and scientific clout to keep pace in an intense global race to continuously improve technology and cost-cutting (similar to mobile telephone manufacturing).

New resource curse. The prevalence of the resource curse could be affected by a rise of renewable energy in at least three ways. First, as oil and gas lose their dominance in the energy mix, petro-states will lose access to the high rents associated with the resource curse. Second, there is the question of whether countries that produce large amounts of renewable energy are likely to become subject to the resource curse, just as major oil and gas producers have been. However, it is also possible that countries producing renewable energy for export may actually end up with more diversified economies than they would otherwise, as the requirements for developing renewable energy resources are quite different from the petroleum sector. Third, there is potential for a new resource curse in countries rich in rare earth elements.

Electric grids. Renewable energy technologies may lead to greater electric interconnections between nations, more widespread distributed energy generation or both. The potential geopolitical implications are complex. On the one hand, greater cross-border trade in electricity could create geopolitical vulnerabilities for electricity importers. On the other hand, greater electric interconnection could increase interdependence among nations, reducing risks of conflict. Renewable energy technologies will affect the vulnerability of electric grids to cyber attacks, potentially creating new vulnerabilities while at the same enhancing resilience with more widespread microgrids and distributed energy technologies.

Reduced oil and gas demand. To the extent that renewable energy reduces demand for oil and gas, there could be significant geopolitical consequences. For oil and gas producers, the decline in revenue generated from fossil fuel energy exports can provide an impetus for political reform and economic diversification. However, a decline in petroleum revenue could also lead to political instability, especially in the short to medium term. Consumer countries would improve their trade balances and their room to maneuver in the international system. The development of renewable energy is already a game changer for Chile, Jordan, Morocco, and several island states in terms of energy security.

Avoided climate change. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions as a result of expanded use of renewable energy should logically reduce the risk of conflict and instability that climate change would otherwise generate. One region where large-scale deployment of renewable energy may have significant geopolitical consequences is Africa.

Sustainable energy access. Access to modern forms of energy is one of the preconditions for achieving sustainable development. The geopolitical impacts of access to energy are important, as such access can contribute to lasting solutions to instability and conflict. It is possible that renewables not only have an impact on geopolitics but that geopolitics, particularly in risky and institutionally unstable environments, can also influence investments in renewable energy by increasing the cost of capital.

These categories do not offer a comprehensive assessment of the ways in which renewables affect geopolitics. The purpose of this paper is to provide food for thought for a broader discussion on the ways in which greater renewable energy and geopolitics intersect. Accordingly, the final section (Section III) suggests areas and directions for future research.

Unsur tanah jarang ( Rare Earth Element), merupakan usur yang sangat jarang
ditemukan atau kelimpahan sangat sedikit di alam. Unsur tanah jarang, ditemukan dalam bentuk senyawa kompleks. Unsur tanah jarang mempunyai memiliki keelektropositifan yang tinggi dan kereaktifan yang sangat tinggi terhadap air dan oksigen sehingga disimpan dalam wadah kaca yang tertutup.

A B S T R A C T BaO-TeO 2 glasses containing 10 to 20-mol% BaO were studied by X-ray diffraction, density, thermal analysis, UV–visible and Raman spectroscopy. The effects of Eu 3 + , Dy 3 + , Er 3 + and Nd 3 + on the density, thermal, optical absorption and luminescent properties of barium tellurite glasses were studied. The short-range structure of barium tellurite glasses consists of TeO 4 trigonal bipyramidal and TeO 3 trigonal pyramidal units. TeeO coordination (N TeeO) was determined by Raman studies; it was found that that N TeeO decreases with increase in BaO and rare earth oxide concentration. The glass transition temperature is a function of both the average single bond enthalpy and non-bridging oxygen concentration in the glass network. Glasses containing Dy 3 + and Eu 3 + show strong visible light photoluminescence, and our results show that barium tellurite glasses are suitable hosts for rare earth ion luminescence due to low phonon energies.

Various rare elements which were extremely expensive and difficult to extract from nature are nowadays easier to access due to advanced technology. This in turn has led to the widely use of such elements in the ceramic and glass industries with studies on their oxides and salts. Ceramic and glass artists who especially follow these new technologies and aim to apply them to art, have attained new experience using the various effects of the oxides and salts of such rare elements. There are various different effects, bodies and application methods available by trial of effects of these elements under different heating conditions. Following these progresses researchers have found the opportunity to improve their studies in the area of glass and ceramic arts by observing the different effects of these rare alkalines which cannot be obtained through known elements and the varying of effects under different heating conditions for applications in art. All these improvements have accelerated the research in the area of ceramic and glass art.

In this research study, the behavior within glazed ceramic/porcelain bodies of attained various rare soil elements and some oxides of which compounds are rarely found in the ceramic technology have been researched and conclusions drawn. Various studies have been carried out with attained oxides or compounds of elements such as Gallium, Rubidium, Selenium, Lanthanum, Cerium, Erbium and as a result of these trials the usage of these elements in ceramic and glass arts has been assessed. All positive and negative conclusions have been documented in this research study by low and high heating conditions.

Makalah ini membahas bagaimana potensi dari logam tanah jarang di sulawesi beserta genesa pembentukannya berdasarkan properti geokimianya.
makalah ini disusun berdasarkan jurnal yang disusun bapak Dr.Eng. Adi MAULANA, M.Phil pada 2014 lalu.

paper rujukan:
Maulana A. Imai, A. Watanabe, K., Yonezu, K. Geochemistry of REE in the weathered crust from the granitic rocks in Sulawesi Island, Indonesia. Journal of Earth Sciences,

Ekonomi sirkular adalah sebuah pendekatan alternatif untuk ekonomi linier tradisional (buat, gunakan, buang), sehingga dapat menjaga sumber daya untuk digunakan seoptimal mungkin, dapat digunakan selama mungkin, menggali nilai maksimum dari penggunaan, kemudian memulihkan dan meregenerasi produk dan bahan pada setiap akhir umur layanan. Ekonomi sirkular merupakan sistem industri yang bersifat restoratif dan regeneratif dengan suatu desain, yang menggantikan konsep 'akhir hidup' produk ke arah penggunaan energi yang terbarukan, menghilangkan penggunaan bahan kimia beracun, serta bertujuan untuk penghapusan limbah melalui desain unggul bahan, produk, sistem, dan model bisnis. Pada sistem ekonomi sirkular, penggunaan sumber daya, sampah, emisi, dan energi terbuang diminimalisir dengan menutup siklus produksi-konsumsi dengan memperpanjang umur produk, inovasi desain, pemeliharaan, pengunaan kembali, remanufaktur, daur ulang ke produk semula (recycling), dan daur ulang menjadi produk lain (upcycling). Dalam konteks keberlanjutan produk plastik, konsep ekonomi sirkular dapat diterapkan melalui beberapa cara misalnya: recycling plastik, upcycling plastik sebagai campuran aspal, mengubah plastik bernilai ekonomi rendah menjadi bahan bakar atau energi, dan sebagainya Dalam ekonomi sirkular, kegiatan ekonomi membangun dan membangun kembali kesehatan sistem secara keseluruhan. Konsep ini mengakui pentingnya ekonomi yang perlu bekerja secara efektif di semua skala baik bisnis besar dan kecil, untuk organisasi dan individu, secara global dan lokal. Transisi ke ekonomi sirkular tidak hanya berarti penyesuaian untuk mengurangi dampak negatif ekonomi linier. Sebaliknya, ekonomi sirkular merupakan perubahan sistemik yang membangun ketahanan jangka panjang, menghasilkan peluang bisnis dan ekonomi, dan memberikan manfaat lingkungan dan sosial.

Orthopedic implants, such as those made of stainless steel, cobalt (Co)-based alloys and titanium (Ti) alloys, are commonly used to stabilize, protect, improve, replace or regenerate damaged musculoskeletal tissues both anatomically and functionally in millions of bone injury patients. The biggest drawback of these metallic biomaterials is their non-degradability in the body environment. Magnesium (Mg) and magnesium-based alloys are a new generation of degradable implant materials that have attracted great attention in the past 10 years. There are several advantages of magnesium-based alloys for orthopedic application over other metallic biomaterials. First, magnesium is an essential element for many biological activities, including enzymatic reactions, the formation of apatite and bone cell adsorption. Second, their mechanical properties, including density, elastic modulus and compressive yield strength, are much closer to those of natural bone, and, therefore, they can avoid the stress-shielding effect. Third, magnesium alloys can eliminate the necessity of a second surgery to remove permanent bone implants. Recent results show that alloying of magnesium with aluminum (Al), zinc (Zn), calcium (Ca), zirconium (Zr), yttrium (Y) and rare-earth elements can significantly improve its corrosion resistance and mechanical strength. This paper reviews and compares the mechanical properties, corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of currently researched magnesium-based alloys for use in medical implant applications.