Northern Mesopotamia

The paper focuses on the funerary customs attested in Middle Bronze Age (MBA) Mesopotamia, addressing the issue of common or distinctive characteristics and searching for potential evidence of assimilation of a new tribal-rooted identity. Specific burial practices, such as residential burials, use of vaulted chamber tombs and post-entombment rituals, were widely disseminated throughout the whole area during this period. Occurrence of donkey burials appears to be another distinctive trait in Upper Mesopotamia. Moreover, certain characteristic elements of these practices have been noted beyond Mesopotamia, in the Levant and as far as the eastern Nile Delta (Tell Daba’a), where they are associated with the Hyksos period. A puzzling resemblance between MBA funerary assemblages from Tell Arbid in upper Mesopotamia and the material from the distant region of Tell Daba’a (Avaris) was noted. This prompted a deeper study and presentation of the Mesopotamian MBA burials in a broader sociopolitical context, addressing issues of the character of similarities and discrepancies through comparison of relevant ritual variables throughout the area discussed. It confirmed a broad emergence of parallel mortuary behaviors focusing on kinship and ancestor commemoration. However, several areas do not fit this seemingly coherent picture of funerary customs, revealing distinctive regional identities. The changes in burial customs coincide with a sociopolitical transformation in Mesopotamia, resulting in the establishment of Amorite kingdoms and a profusion of pastoral tribes. It would seem, therefore, that the adoption of a new mortuary ideology and new constructed group identity was an answer to these sociopolitical developments.

O.P. Nieuwenhuyse, P.M.M.G. Akkermans, J. van der Plicht, A. Russell & A. Kaneda (2016). In: P. Biehl & O.P. Nieuwenhuyse (eds.). Climate and cultural change in prehistoric Europe and the Near East. Buffalo, NY: State University of New York Press, 67-93.

“Demon” is a generic term that hardly fits the various Mesopotamian be- ings, which according to modern scholars are grouped under this category. Despite the evolution of demonic imagery through different periods and sources, these be- ings share a series of common features such as their origin, position and role in the pantheon, liminality, actions and powers, hybridity, and aerial form. In my paper I will analyze these features so as to argue that incompleteness constitutes the main aspect of their nature.

"In this note the author proposes a comparative analysis of two of the myths of destruction the mankind: the myth of Atrahasis, and the Egyptian Myth, extending the analysis also to the Old Testament. With regard to the Egyptian world of Egyptian the author suggests an analysis about the concept of ethno- extinction of Egyptian culture: the choice between anthropological and mythological response, starting from the study of myths and compare them with the social choice of the holders of Egyptian culture in the face of foreign domination of the country.

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This study explores three houses, namely Abdülkadir Pasha Mansion, Dokmak Family House and Oral Family House, constructed by Muslim, Christian and Jew families in Mardin in the end of the 19th century. The houses in question were constructed in an era when Tanzimat bureaucrats implemented the Tanzimat reforms in the Eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Tanzimat and Islahat reforms effected the non-Muslim communities largely as they promised to non-Muslim communities an equal citizen status, and rights to preserve and develop their cultural identities and to participate in political life in the Ottoman world. The article aims to discuss the subject by analyzing the architectural characteristics, decorations and stylistic features of the houses and by focusing on the cultural and political processes that influence the formation of architectural styles that different ethno-religious groups living together for centuries have developed in Mardin. In connection with this, the spatial organization of housing and the relationship between society and housing will be analyzed. Thus, it will describe architectural and decorative features of each house, compare with each other and explore their main commonalities and distinctnesses. In addition to the critical use of the limited literature on the subject, the study, carried out on the basis of archival documents and fieldwork, also addresses the processes of intercultural relations, formation of architectural styles and processes of political change in the holistic approach.

The article deals with the nature of the so-called “Oppression of Uruk” in the Gilgamesh versions. The interpretation of the words gišellag and gišeke4/kè-ma in the Sumerian versions and their equivalents, the pukku and mekkû in the Akkadian versions form the focus of this discussion. Although scholars currently agree that the general meaning is to be found in some type of sporting or games context, it has never been considered as part of the board game scenario, which seems most probable. This discussion connects the gišellag/pukku with a “game board” and giše-ke4-ma/mekkû with “gaming/games pieces”. Although the iconographic evidence has been discussed previously in relation to the mother/fertility goddess,2 the textual evidence will form the core of this article, given the scenario that Inanna and Ištar have been generally connected with playing contexts previously.

Burials of the late Neolithic in north Mesopotamia (here taken as from about 6,000 uncal BC to 4,500 uncal BC and covering the full range of the Hassuna and the Halaf) exhibit a wide range of types. Although there is a considerable variety in the quantities of grave goods, their interpretation is more problematic. The Binford/Saxe interpretation in terms of the social status of the deceased person does not seem completely convincing on the basis of this data. A particular study is presented based on the large group of published and rich graves from Tell es-Sawwan level I. Using this, together with material from elsewhere, different interpretations are suggested emphasising the role these burial goods may have played for those who deposited them.

http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap3/index.html
The Royal Inscriptions of Sennacherib, King of Assyria (704-681 BC), Part 2 (Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period 3/2) provides reliable, up-to-date editions of 195 texts of Sennacherib, as well as 26 other late Neo-Assyrian inscriptions that might belong to this king and 2 inscriptions of his family (including one of his wives, Tashmetu-sharrat). The volume contains historical inscriptions on bull and lion colossi from Nineveh, rock reliefs, stone horizontal prisms, and clay cylinders and prisms from other cities under Sennacherib’s authority (especially Ashur and Tarbisu); epigraphs on reliefs; and inscriptions on bricks, threshold slabs, door sockets, wall panels, stone blocks, beads, metal plating (including door bands); and drafts and copies of historical and building inscriptions written on clay tablets. Each text edition (with its English translation) is supplied with a brief introduction containing general information, a catalogue containing basic information about all exemplars, a commentary containing further technical information and notes, and a comprehensive bibliography.

RINAP 3/2 also includes: (1) a general introduction to the corpus of inscriptions and Sennacherib’s numerous building activities in Assyria (especially construction at Ashur); (2) several photographs of objects inscribed with texts of Sennacherib; (3) indices of museum and excavation numbers and selected publications; and (4) indices of proper names (Personal Names; Geographic, Ethnic, and Tribal Names; Divine, Planet, and Star Names; Gate, Palace, Temple, and Wall Names; and Object Names).

http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap3/index.html
The Royal Inscriptions of Sennacherib, King of Assyria (704-681 BC), Part 1 (Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period 3/1) provides reliable, up-to-date editions of thirty-eight historical inscriptions of Sennacherib. The texts edited in RINAP 3/1, which comprise approximately a sixth of the Sennacherib known corpus of inscriptions, were inscribed on clay cylinders, clay prisms, stone tablets, and stone steles from Nineveh; describe his many victories on the battlefield; and record numerous construction projects at Nineveh, including the city's walls and the "Palace Without a Rival." Each text edition (with its English translation) is supplied with a brief introduction containing general information, a catalogue containing basic information about all exemplars, a commentary containing further technical information and notes, and a comprehensive bibliography.

RINAP 3/1 also includes: (1) a general introduction to the reign of Sennacherib, his military campaigns, his building activities at Nineveh, the corpus of inscriptions, previous studies, and dating and chronology; (2) translations of the relevant passages of several Mesopotamian chronicles and kinglists; (3) several photographs of objects inscribed with texts of Sennacherib; (4) indices of museum and excavation numbers and selected publications; and (5) indices of proper names (Personal Names; Geographic, Ethnic, and Tribal Names; Divine, Planet, and Star Names; Gate, Palace, Temple, and Wall Names; and Object Names).

This chapter of my book in progress examines the ancient city Karahöyük-Konya in relation to the kingdom of Purušhanda.The chapter also describes the possible relations with the Göksu valley, Alalakh, Amuq valley, the Amanum and Taurus mountains.

In Iraq in general, and Northeastern Mesopotamia in particular, a fine-grained, regionally defined ceramic chronology of the Late Sasanian - Early Islamic transition period is far to be established. Therefore, the archaeological results still are capable to offer new perspectives in the debate on historical processes to a very limited extent. The study presents some methodological points of departure for and preliminary results of the transition pottery analysis in the region of Adiabene/Hadyab (historical province of Arbela, Northeastern Mesopotamia). In addition to the definition of two Ceramic Periods (CP1 and CP2), that should cover a time span from the late 7th to the 9th century, the geographical distribution of pottery types and the dynamics of change in the structure of the pottery repertoire (and the corresponding change in the dining habits and culinary traditions) have also been preliminarily addressed.

This book is about the church architecture of Northern Mesopotamia between the fourth and eighth centuries. It draws attention to several aspects ranging from settlements, the variety of plan types, the remarkable continuity of the classical tradition in the architectural decoration, the heterogeneity of the building techniques, patrons, imperial motivations, to stories that claim and make places. It employs archaeological and epigraphical material and hagiographical and historical sources in order to create a holistic picture of the church architecture of this frontier region that had been neglected. It encompasses the cities of Nisibis (Nusaybin), Edessa (Şanlıurfa), Amida (Diyarbakır), Anastasiopolis (Dara/ Oğuz), Martyropolis (Silvan), Constantia (Viranşehir), and the rural Ṭur ʿAbdin region. The period covered, spans the last centuries of Byzantine and the first one and a half centuries of Arab rule, when the region was on the one hand, a stage of war and riven by religious controversies, and on the other a dynamic cultural interspace. The book hopes to offer a regional contribution to the study of the transformation that the Byzantine civilisation underwent in the late antique period. It assesses the continuities and changes in the church architecture after the Arab conquest and discusses whether in this period, one can talk about a church architecture that is specific to the Syrian Orthodox.

This paper discusses a set of skulls which come from Halaf and Ubaid burials excavated by Max Mallowan in 1933 at Arpachiyah in north Iraq. These date from approximately 4600 bc and 4300 bc respectively. Many of the skulls exhibit a marked degree of deliberate, artificial deformation. This is tentatively related to depictions of heads on pottery and figurines. The possible social context in which this deformation was practised is also discussed. A second point to emerge from the re-examination of the skulls is that there is a strong probability of a direct genetic link between the Halaf skulls and the Ubaid skulls suggesting that there was a considerable measure of continuity in the populations.

The University of Tübingen and the Directorate of Antiquities Dohuk launched excavations in the frame of a joint project at the Bronze Age urban site of Bassetki, which is famous for the accidental discovery of the copper basis of the Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin. The major aim of the excavations is to investigate the importance and urban development of the site from the Early through the Middle to the Late Bronze Age. During the first two seasons of 2015 and 2016 the stratigraphy and chronology of the upper town were explored, as well as the settlement organisation of the extended lower town, and an extra-urban area to the south of the city, where a street and several cremation burials of the Middle Bronze Age were found.

The Amorites have occupied a central place among discussions of identity and ethnicity in the late third and early second millennia B.C. This contribution addresses the principal role that climate change played in altering trajectories in the development of Amorite identities in the ancient Near East during this period. To address this question this paper outlines a consensus position on the textual and archaeological evidence for Amorite identities prior to the aridification event ca. 2200 B.C. This is followed by an evaluation of the evidence for the effects of this climatic change on specific regions—from the Egyptian Delta to Northern Mesopotamia—and its implications for social interactions that resulted in varied, yet related trajectories in the development of Amorite identities. Risk mitigation strategies that were employed by the region’s populations are evaluated as a principal means of addressing how different populations sought to cope with the impact of climate change, alongside persistent cultural changes associated with anthropogenic phenomena. The author concludes that climatic change, while not solely responsible, did play a crucial role in shaping Amorite identities in the late third millennium.

It is now firmly established that Sargon II's brother Sīn-aḫu-uṣur was also his vizier (sukkallu). He was the addressee of many letters written by the subjects of the Empire. He appears on a number of contemporary documents. The present study demonstrates that the correspondence of Sargon's brother and vizier, together with some historical documents, show that Sīn-aḫu-uṣur was ruling Babylonia on behalf of his brother, the king. The paper will analyse the spheres of the king's brother's involvement in the state affairs. The article investigates the extraordinary status and functions of the sukkallu of Sargon, who restored the grandeur of this office based on the Middle Assyrian precedent especially for his brother. The author further explores Ḫarrān as the seat of the collateral royal family members and the role of the precedent of the Middle Assyrian dynasty of sukkallus, the kings of ḪaniGALbat, 2) in the ideology of the Sargonids. Lastly, I will argue that the relationship between Sargon and Sīn-aḫu-uṣur served a model for Esarhaddon in his division of power between his two sons and heirs, Assurba-nipal and Šamaš-šumu-ukīn.

This article describes the history of the kingdom Hur(a)ma in the 17th century BCE. Hurama’s history between 1700 and 1600 BCE is close related with the kingdom of Kussara during the reign of Labarna and Hattusili I. Several reconstructions and hypothesizes are discussed in order to answer certain historical questions.
Part I: In which cities were the courts of Labarna and Hattusili I located? Who was king in the concerned texts (CTH 8, CTH 13, KBo III.28)? Where did the city Hurama locate in Anatolia?

The semantic context of the cultural patterns of the past is beyond our perception. This fact, regardless of time and space, thus, makes any type of social organizations that existed in the past complex and transitive. Bearing in mind this fact, this study aimed to analyze the Late Chalcolithic period (ca. 4500-3000 BC) in an extensive area of north Mesopotamia with archaeological traces of an increasing socio-cultural, socio-economic, and socio-political complexity through the Annales School of History paradigm, which divides time into geographical time, social time, and individual time. Within this division, geographical time (longue durée) refers to the role of environment and geography on the nature and development of the northern communities at the regional level. Social time (conjoncture) provides a perceptible rhythm of indigenous cultural phenomena in north Mesopotamia (ca. 4500-3700 BC) prior to the Uruk culture of southern Mesopotamian origin, and a certain degree of social mobility, history of communities and their ideologies (mentalité) after the Uruk expansion (ca 3700-3000 BC). The Uruk phenomenon in north Mesopotamia can be perceived in social time. At another level, individual time (évènement), which takes historical events as the reference, coincides with the establishment of the Uruk colonies at Tell Sheikh Hassan, Habuba Kabira Süd, and Jebel Aruda in the Middle Euphrates Basin. In comparison with the earlier assessments, this analysis shows that an interpretation of continuity and change in total history (histoire totale) of the Late Chalcolithic period of north Mesopotamia is possible with the Annales paradigm. It also shows that north Mesopotamia, in the long term, hosted a number of cultural patterns; thus, provides culturally accumulated continuity, while different cultural influences and interactions, in several cases, played a key role in cultural changes. The interpretation of this thesis based on archaeological excavations, surveys carried out in north Mesopotamia, as well as previous views on the Late Chalcolithic period.

SUMMARY
This thesis shall identify the date origin of the composite bow within Mesopotamia and Elam. and both identify and quantify the design factors which lead to increased performance possible with composite construction. To accomplish this, the thesis begins by summarizing the problems and flaws that currently exist in the field of history as it applies specifically to archery and bow use. With problems identified, the thesis will then introduce the reader to the basics of bow mechanics, thereby laying the basis for physical testing. This in turn will empirically demonstrate flaws in the current iconographical method of bow identification. The thesis will then devise a new method for iconographic identification of composite construction that has greater proven accuracy, based upon proportional length, which will link extant artifacts with both physical test results and iconographic evidence.

The reader shall then be led through a complete reevaluation of iconographical evidence for Mesopotamia and Elam starting at the beginning of the second millennium BCE and working backwards using this new method of iconographic evaluation to determine the point at which composite bow technology first appears in the ancient Near East. The thesis will finish with an overview of the above accomplishments and their potential impact on the study of ancient and military history.

KEY TERMS
Ancient History, Military History, Archery, Bow, Composite, Experimental Archaeology, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Elam, Arrow

This book is the first-ever comprehensive study of the history and culture of these three little-known countries of Northern Mesopotamia (3rd century BCE – 7th century CE). The book gives an overview of the historical geography, material culture, and political history of each of these countries. Furthermore, the summary offers a regional perspective by describing the history of this area as a subject of the political and cultural competition of great powers.
This book answers both a recent growth of interest in ancient Mesopotamia as the frontier area, as well as the urgent need for documentation of the cultural heritage of a region that has recently become subject to the destructive influence of sectarian violence.