Mongolian history

The Medieval Wall System of China and Mongolia is one of the longest wall systems in the world, but its specific chronology, function, and purpose remain ambiguous. Constructed at various points throughout the 10th to 13th centuries CE, this network of walls, forts, and enclosures covers an estimated 4000 km and spans a wide range of ecozones, from the deserts of western China to the steppes of northern Mongolia and the Khingan mountain range. In this article we used historical atlases, topographic maps, and an array of different kinds of data derived from satellite remote sensing, to produce one of the first accurate maps of the Medieval Wall System. Through this large-scale mapping program, we are now able to evaluate previous work that estimates the length of the wall system and different areas of construction. By measuring the structures associated with the wall and the length of the wall itself, we identified at least three different areas of construction along the Medieval Wall System. Future studies may be able to use similar tools to develop more accurate maps of other wall systems throughout Eurasia to further advance the comparative study of ancient wall systems.

This is the fourth volume in the ICOMOS series on the Thematic Studies on Rock Art. The three previous volumes have focused upon: Latin America and the Caribbean (2006); Rock Art of Sahara and North Africa (2007) and Rock Art in Central Asia (edited by Jean Clottes, 2011).

The idea behind the series was to provide an overall yet relatively precise view of what is known about the rock art of a wide geographical area. In the regions fortunate enough to have had a long tradition of research, in Western Europe for instance, this should not be too difficult. On the other hand, the situation is quite different in many parts of the world where such in-depth research has not (yet) taken place.

Many of the vast areas covered in this volume fall into this second category. The scope of the current volume is the Rock Art of East Asia, from Siberia in the north to Malaysia in the south and stretching as far west as needed to cover all regions lying to the east of the previous volume in this series that concerned the Rock Art of Central Asia. The countries covered by this volume are Far Eastern Russia, the Republic of Korea; Japan; Mongolia; China; Vietnam; Laos; Cambodia; Thailand and Malaysia.

The coverage of the individual countries covered in the volume is necessarily uneven because the amount of rock art and research in each country varies considerably. China, for example, has been subdivided into three different zones. This has allowed the authors to provide a wealth of details on the rock art of regions which up to now were all but unknown internationally.

ICOMOS provided each contributor with a Brief in which they were asked to cover the following topics:

Profile of Sub-Zone
Based on defined rock art traditions in relation to distribution in space and time and to archaeological context.
• Characteristic features of natural landscape and the geographical boundaries of the Sub-zone;
• Prevailing types of landscapes which are characteristic for rock art sites in this Sub-zone; types of bedrock for rock art;
• Number and extent of rock art sites in this Sub-zone;
• Dating of rock art objects;
• Rock art traditions identified;
• Archaeological context of the Sub-zone (brief description, state of knowledge on archaeological cultures relevant to the identified rock art traditions);
• Present ethno-cultural context of rock art sites; presence or absence of recorded traditions of respect and worship connected to the rock art sites. 1

Links with other Sub-zones
i.e. overlaps with rock art traditions in other zones.
• Extent, to which the identified rock art traditions go beyond the boundaries of this sub-zone;
• Similarities and differences in landscapes and bedrock types;
• Representativeness of these identified rock art traditions for the other sub-zones (number of images, repertoire, artistic features, similarity or exclusiveness).

Known sites
Including cultural and natural World Heritage Sites; sites on World Heritage Tentative Lists (all these already identified and listed by ICOMOS).

Significant Rock Art Sites
To include a description of each Site:
• Location (region, district, distance from the nearest villages and towns);
• Geographical area, coordinates and altitude;
• Main types of bedrock (type of rock, relief, physical qualities of surfaces);
• Characteristics of physical parameters of images (technique, dimensions, color of patina or paint, exposition);
• Total number of images;
• Area of distribution of images;
• Description of various rock art traditions identified within the site (techniques, repertoire, style), their dating and percentage;
• Archaeological context (other known archaeological objects found within the same territory, state of research and cultural-chronological attribution);
• Cultural context (absence or presence of any recorded traditions related to rock art performance and/or respect to rock art sites from the side of local communities).

Content and forms of Documentation available:
For instance:
• Archaeological maps (showing the location of rock art and other objects);
• Other special maps (geological, geo-morphological, tectonic, landscape, etc.);
• Topographic maps of separate localities of rock images;
• Indexed panoramas of separate localities of rock images (graphic and photographic);
• Photographs of individual surfaces with images;
• Rubbings of individual surfaces with images;
• Other types of documentation (aerial photos, video, 3D digital models, etc.);
• Types of inventory records;
• Location of documentation.

Research
How far have rock art sites been researched for their associations to societies both past and present, particularly significances which indigenous populations give (or have given) to the decorated sites.

Protection
• Existing laws and other official protection systems and mechanisms;
• Legal protection, protection zoning, safeguarding.

Conservation
As complete and as correct a picture as possible to include:
• Present state of conservation and affecting factors (rock art and other archaeological objects, and landscape);
• Methods and materials used in practical conservation;
• Preventative conservation methods.

Management:
To include:
• Management, maintenance, monitoring (including traditional forms of management and management of natural values);
• Main agencies involved in management;
• Whether Management plans exist;
• Links with, and involvement of, local communities;
• Modern use of the site (e.g. agriculture, pasture, hunting, recreation, etc.);
• Tourism and access;
• Limitations in resources.

Main threats
For instance:
• Changes to surrounding vegetation;
• Rock fissures/laminations/water ingress;
• Climate change;
• Limitations in funding;
• Lack of management;
• Inappropriate uses.

Conclusions for the Sub-zone
Conclusions on:
• Scope and extent of evidence;
• Documentation;
• Problems with management and conservation as well as good practice;
• Threats;
• What Pre-Nomination support might be needed;
• Potential of Zone to contribute sites to the World Heritage List;
• Recommendations for the future.
These recommendations are meant to cover all possible issues and to be useful for the contributors who are thus provided with a detailed framework. Not surprisingly, conservation problems are duly stressed, as rock art is vulnerable and more threatened than ever all over the world.