Drip / trickle irrigation

The placement depths subsurface drip laterals installed by developed machine are uniform as compared to manual installation, yet it may vary. To assess on the uniformity of installation, the placement depth with respect to the soil surface has been accessed and analysed for recently developed tractor operated subsurface drip lateral laying machine. A field experiment was laid at the ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, India. Two types of drip laterals, pipe and drip tape, both of 16 mm diameter, were installed while each of them were placed at two depths of 15 and 20 cm by using the subsurface drip lateral laying machine. Each lateral and placement depths were thus considered as treatments which were replicated three times. Each lateral was considered as one treatment. A week after laying of experiment, the soil around the lateral pipe has carefully been dug without disturbing the lateral pipe and the depth from the surface was recorded by vertically placing ...

In pressure irrigation-water distribution networks, applied water volume is usually controlled opening a valve during a calculated time interval, and assuming constant flow rate. In general, pressure regulating devices for controlling the discharged flow rate by irrigation units are needed due to the variability of pressure conditions.

An interactive computer enabled software namely IRRIPRO was used in order to design and plan viable drip irrigation systems. This software is proficient enough in planning network layout, hydraulic designing and above all simulations to obtain results. This software can also provide requisite cost estimation of new as well as existing drip irrigation. IRRIPRO has the diverse quality to calculate and design many other hydraulic parameters. It is a helping tool for water resource engineers in designing, testing, analyzing any other alternative design on precision and economical parameters.

Water management is a critical aspect for the successful cultivation of pomegranate. In arid and semi-arid regions of India, water is a scarce resource and its efficient use has to be prioritized. Regular water supply through a drip irrigation system is essential for sustainable production of pomegranate. Water applied in appropriate irrigation scheduling can influence productivity and fruit quality. In this paper, a critical review of several research studies pertaining to water management in pomegranate has been highlighted.

This study evaluates crop and water productivity of drip and furrow irrigation systems for off-season vegetables under plastic tunnels on farmer's fields. Drip and furrow irrigation systems were tested on capsicum, cucumber and hot papers in this study. A permanent tunnel of 60 × 3 × 2 m was erected. Each crop was planted on 0.8 × 0.4 m raised beds under drip and furrow irrigation systems. Water productivity was calculated as the ratio of total yield to total water consumed by the crop. Data collected for three off-season vegetables revealed that each crop consumed less water under drip irrigation as compared to the furrow irrigation system. Among crops, hot peppers consumed the least amount of water irrespective of irrigation systems in comparison to furrow irrigation system. In addition, the percent use of all inputs under drip irrigation was reduced: water by 30%-45%, fertilizers by 22%-30% and pesticides by 15%-20% (because of reduced temperature and humidity) for different crops. In comparison to furrow irrigation, yield under drip irrigation was increased by 20%-30% and net farm income by 19%-41% for different crops. Average water productivity (kg/m 3) was increased by 141% for capsicum, 165% for cucumber and 109% for hot papers under drip irrigation system compared to the furrow irrigation system. In conclusion, drip irrigation technology is effective in improving crop growth and water productivity, and reducing water scarcity while considerably reducing fertilizer and pesticide use. These results advocate for drip irrigation as an ideal technology to address the issue of freshwater resource scarcity in Pakistan.

High efficiency irrigation offers efficient use of water, labor and other resources and allows the vegetable industry to grow in future. Field studies were conducted for two consecutive years in district Toba Tek Singh to investigate the comparative water use efficiency, fertilizer use efficiency and economics of sweet peppers under drip and furrow irrigation methods. Treatments comprised of T1= irrigation with drip method + 100% fertilizer of recommended dose; T2 = irrigation with drip method + 50% fertilizer of T1; T3= irrigation with furrow method + 100% fertilizer of recommended dose with conventional method and T4 = irrigation with furrow method + 50% fertilizer of T3. Results indicated that yield and yield components were significantly improved under drip irrigation compared to conventional irrigation method. Sweet pepper yield was increased by 60% in drip irrigation system over furrow irrigation method. The resource use efficiency analysis showed that drip irrigation exhibited 47% more relative water use efficiency, 59% higher water productivity and 54.5% more fertilizer use efficiency over furrow irrigation. Overall, drip irrigation saved up to 53.5% volume of water applied to conventional irrigation method in sweet pepper production. The net income of sweet papers was increased by 66% with less water and less fertilizer by adopting high tech drip irrigation technology. Opportunities still exist to increase sweet paper output in the study area by increasing the level of above mentioned productive resources with proper irrigation scheduling. The study also suggested that drip irrigation system has a greater scope for the production of off-season vegetables grown under plastic tunnel especially in water scarce areas of Pakistan.

Water shortage is a real problem in many parts of the world and finding alternative solutions such as the application of saline water in cropping systems is highly appreciated. Research on drip irrigation and soil salinity is still inadequate, and their effect on crop yield and water use efficiency (WUE) is a huge challenge for small farmers. The present study was conducted in Malir, a semiarid region in the Sindh province of Pakistan. The purpose was to estimate the effects of two different qualities of irrigation water including fresh quality water (IT1 0.56 dS m−1) and saline groundwater (IT2 2.89 dS m−1) on WUE using drip irrigation technology in 2018–19. The experimental design was complete randomized block design (RCBD) with two treatments of irrigation: (1) freshwater (IT1) with 0.56 dS m−1 electrical conductivity and (2) saline water (IT2) with 2.89 dS m−1 electrical conductivity. The average biomass and crop yield under IT1 were 10.2 t.ha−1 and 7.4 t.ha−1, respectively, and...

The developed model 'Drip Chartist' by Ismail et al. (2006a) was verified and validated in field and by comparison to other related model "Hydrus 2D". Field validation resulted showed that the surface system without hydraulic barrier represents the real-condition by 94.99% (correlation coefficient of 0.9746) with under estimation of 0.157. While in the subsurface system with hydraulic barrier represents the realcondition by 81.96% (correlation coefficient of 0.9053) with under estimation of 0.021. Validation to Hydrus2D lead to almost coincidence in predicted ...

A new and relatively precise method was developed for correct design of pressurized irrigation laterals installed on sloping land with constant diameter. This method is combination of analytical and optimization methods. By the method minimum and maximum pressure and range of its variations can be calculated. On base of this calculation optimal length of lateral is determined, so that the range of pressure variations is not more than its allowable value. Results of this research were presented as a Table in order to guide line of design. It showed that two types of pressure distributions for laterals installed on sloping land. The first type occur when the pressure is decreasing and then increasing and thus there is a point for relative minimum pressure on lateral. In this distribution, difference between elevations of two ends of lateral to energy loss ratio is less than 2.85211. If this ratio be more than 2.85211, the second type distribution. In this distribution the pressure is increasing and reaches to its maximum value at end of lateral.

A promising way of addressing the issue of growing water scarcity is through wider use of drip irrigation, which delivers water and fertilizer to crops in a slow, targeted manner, and has been shown to increase yields and water use efficiency. Yet, drip irrigation system adoption is low, primarily due to the high capital cost of the pressurized piping network and the pump, and operating energy cost. Lowering the water pressure needed for drip emitters to deliver water can reduce both capital and operating costs of drip systems. Here we present the results from field trials of new pressure-compensating online drip emitters that operate with a minimum compensating inlet pressure of 15 kPa (0.15 bar), in comparison to typical commercial emitters with minimum pressures of 50–100 kPa (0.5–1.0 bar). The field trials were carried out on nine farms in Morocco and Jordan over the course of one irrigation season with freshwater and treated wastewater. Low-pressure emitters are shown to reduce...

The relationship between crop production and amount of evapotranspiration is very important to agronomists, engineers, economists, and water resources planners. These relationships are often determined using classical least square regression (LSR). However, one needs high amount of samples to determine probability distribution function. Linear regression also requires so many measurements to obtain the valid estimates of crop production function coefficients. In addition, deriving ET-yield regression for each crop and each district is usually expensive, since lysimetric experiments should be repeated for several years for each crop. The object of this study is to introduce a fuzzy linear regression as an alternative approach to statistical regression analysis in determining coefficients of ET- yield relations for each crop and each district with minimum data. The application of possibilistic regression has been examined with a case study. Two data set for winter wheat in Loss Platea...

Efficient irrigation plays a vital role in the production of vеgеtablеs and fruits. Too low or high water application can reduce the growth and dеvеlopmеnt process of plants which may negatively affect the crop yield. To investigate the fact, a field еxpеrimеnt was carried out to check the growth and yield of cucumber on a sandy soil, under grееnhousе conditions by using drip irrigation system having flow rate of drippers 2 liters per hour respectively. The field study was carried out on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) having five different rates of irrigation treatments, i.е. (T1 = one time, T2 = two times, T3 = thrее times, T4 = four times, and T5 = five times) application per day rеspеctivеly. The results rеvеalеd that different levels of irrigation with constant doses of fertilizers brought a positive еffеct in cucumber production. Amongst all the treatments, T5 was observed to be more suitable and economical as it took less days to develop flowe...

Management of the drip irrigation system requires proper knowledge of the system, climate and suitable environmental conditions for the cultivated crops. To achieve good management practices for drip irrigation, the impacts of climate variables on plant growth and production during different seasons should be understood. The planning of irrigation system and installation of components in the right way is considered one of the most essential matters to ensure the highest efficiency possible use of available irrigation water and allows the plants to benefit from the most water used. Assessment of the irrigation system and improving its efficiency involves many variables, the details concerning the parts of the irrigation system and also the method of its management and maintenance. Periodic maintenance of the irrigation system is very important, especially when the irrigation system is compact and by drip, for the sustainability of the irrigation system and ensure no poor distribution...

A field experiment was conducted at Plasticulture Farm, CTAE, MPUAT Udaipur in year 2019, to investigate the effect of chemical fertilizer scheduling on growth and yield performance of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) under Sensor Based Automated Drip and Conventional Drip System. In this study four fertigation scheduling treatments of chemical fertilizer were taken. Recommended dose of chemical fertilizer N:P2O5:K2O, 60:30:30 kg/ha were supplied through different chemical fertilizers like Urea, Urea Ammonium Phosphate (UAP) and Sulphate of potash (SOP) during the crop period In this study the 40% and 60% of total recommended doses of fertilizer were applied during initial plus development stage and mid stage of crop growth respectively. The result revealed that the higher plant height and number of branch per plant in fertigation treatments T2 may be attributed to continuous supply and consequent availability of plant nutrients in the root zone during development and mid stage of c...

In light of the current water scarcity, one strategy for reducing water consumption in irrigated agriculture is to reduce the amount of irrigation water compared to full crop irrigation or in other words deficit irrigation. Deficit irrigation management may be a critical issue due to climate change. Incorporation of different soil conditioners can improve soil hydro-physical properties and mitigate negative effects in water-stressed conditions. Recent review articles either addressed specific crop behavior under water deficit or covered a single type of soil conditioners. This manuscript represents an inclusive review providing insight into deficit irrigation methods incorporated with different soil conditioners. Crop response to deficit irrigation is discussed in the light of some mathematical models. Three main types of soil conditioners are covered: bentonite, biochar, and super-absorbent polymers. Mechanisms associated with effects of each conditioner to enhance soil water retention is highlighted as well. Previous study findings were discussed comparatively and future prospective, recommendations and challenges were addressed.

Thе  fоrmаtiоn  оf  intеrсulturаl  соmреtеnсе  is  оnе  оf  thе  mоst
рrеssing  issuеs  оf mоdеrn thеоrу  аnd  рrасtiсе  оf  tеасhing  а  fоrеign lаnguаgе,  аs it is
оnе  оf  thе  mоst  imроrtаnt  gоаls  оf  multiсulturаl  еduсаtiоn  аnd  рrоvidеs  fоr  thе
рrеsеnсе  оf:  “suffiсiеnt  аwаrеnеss  оf  thе  сulturаl  sресifiсs  оf  а  раrtiсulаr  сulturаl
соmmunitу  (inсluding  histоrу,  trаditiоns,  сustоms,  еtiquеttе,  rеligiоn,  wау  оf  lifе,
еtс.);  а  tоlеrаnt  аttitudе  tоwаrds  аll  сulturаl  соmmunitiеs  thаt  ехist  in  а  раrtiсulаr
sосiеtу,  аnd  thеir  сulturаl  сhаrасtеristiсs,  еsресiаllу  thоsе  thаt,  fоr  оnе  rеаsоn  оr
аnоthеr,  саnnоt bе  fullу  ассерtеd bу  а  реrsоn whо  sеlf-асtuаlizеs in  а  сulturаl sрасе;
thе  аbilitу, willingnеss  аnd mоtivаtiоn tо  асt  аs  аn еvеnt fоr  аll  сulturаl  соmmunitiеs
thаt  аrе  раrt  оf  thе  sосiеtу;  а  lеvеl  оf  linguistiс  аnd  соmmuniсаtivе  соmреtеnсе
suffiсiеnt fоr еffесtivе соmmuniсаtiоn аnd intеrасtiоn in а multiсulturаl sосiеtу”

Moistube irrigation (MTI) is a type of technology which uses a semipermeable membrane to emit water continuously in response to soil water potential and applied pressure. Soil water dynamics under MTI incorporating plant water uptake have not been studied. Therefore, this study aimed at determining the soil water distribution under MTI, using cowpea as a reference crop. The effect of Moistube placement depth on the soil water dynamics under MTI was also determined. The experiment was carried out in tunnels with MTI and subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) as a control. The HYDRUS 2D/3D model was calibrated and thereafter used to simulate soil water dynamics for different placement depths. The soil water content above the Moistube/drip lateral was higher under SDI than MTI, while the lateral movement of water was similar for both irrigation types. The simulated soil water contents closely matched (coefficient of determination [R2] ≥ 0.57, root mean square error [RMSE] ≤ 0.029 cm3 cm−3, n...

A promising way of addressing the issue of growing water scarcity is through wider use of drip irrigation, which delivers water and fertilizer to crops in a slow, targeted manner, and has been shown to increase yields and water use efficiency. Yet, drip irrigation system adoption is low, primarily due to the high capital cost of the pressurized piping network and the pump, and operating energy cost. Lowering the water pressure needed for drip emitters to deliver water can reduce both capital and operating costs of drip systems. Here we present the results from field trials of new pressure-compensating online drip emitters that operate with a minimum compensating inlet pressure of 15 kPa (0.15 bar), in comparison to typical commercial emitters with minimum pressures of 50–100 kPa (0.5–1.0 bar). The field trials were carried out on nine farms in Morocco and Jordan over the course of one irrigation season with freshwater and treated wastewater. Low-pressure emitters are shown to reduce...

In Sub-Saharan Africa, where most irrigation systems are manually operated, water allocation and irrigation scheduling are often based on uniform application irrespective of crop needs and growth stages, which results in nonoptimal water use. Recently, a lot of research has been carried out to improve irrigation water use efficiency through automation by employing wireless sensor-based monitoring systems. Further to the improvement of water use efficiency and yield, while reducing costs, a field trial was carried out at a farm in Harare, Zimbabwe, during the 2016, 2017, and 2018 winter seasons to test whether a new approach to the automated irrigation systems, one based on IoT and wirelessly connected soil sensors (called hereafter as WCSS), improves water use efficiency without reducing yield. WCSS method was compared with three widely used conventional irrigation methods, that is, manual scheduling, tensiometer-based scheduling, and weather-based scheduling. Impacts on water savin...

In this study, wetting patterns around the reservoirs with different permeability (low, medium, and high) were assessed in the field and simulated using the HYDRUS-2D/3D software. The results showed that the highest soil water content was observed near the reservoir and it decreased with increasing distance from the reservoir. In the high permeability treatment, a large volume of water was released for almost three days, so that, more water was deep-percolated and lowered the soil water available to plant roots. In the low and medium permeability treatments, the water content slowly moved and observed that the maximum soil water content occurred in the 20-40 cm layer overtime. The HYDRUS-2D/3D software was able to simulate water flow and soil water content during the growth period of plants with a high correspondence between measured and simulated soil water contents (R2 = 0.90-0.95).

Applications of modern micro-irrigation methods are inevitable for optimum water use due to the limitations imposed by irrigation water resource scarcity. Regardless of water shortages and associated challenges in dry areas, the irrigation of date palm trees consumes an excessive quantity of water annually using conventional irrigation methods. Therefore, the present study was designed to evaluate the effects of modern surface and subsurface micro-irrigation systems, i.e., subsurface drip irrigation (SSDI), controlled surface irrigation (CSI), and surface drip-irrigation methods (SDI), with different irrigation water regimes, i.e., 50%, 75%, and 100% irrigation water requirements (IWRs), on the yield and fruit quality of date palms (cv. Khalas) and water conservation in the dryland region of Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia. The effects of three irrigation methods and IWRs were studied on macronutrients and soil chemical properties at three depths (0–30, 30–60, and 60–90 cm), as well as on wat...

The effects of two drip irrigation rates and two emitter placements on tomato production were investigated in the U. S. Virgin Islands. There was significant difference in yields between irrigation rates but none between emitter placements. With tomato variety N-69, marketable yields of 45 and 55 tons/ha were obtained from irrigation rates of 5.2 and 9.9 mm per week, respectively. The relationship of production to rainfall and potential evapotranspiration is discussed.

The gradual reduction of water reserves for irrigation has become a worldwide concern. To improve the irrigation of processing tomato, we conducted a study to evaluate a system that monitors both plant water status and soil moisture levels (PlaSoMan) compared to an evapotraspirometric method (IrriMan) and an empirical farmer’s management (FarMan) in a two-year field trial. The results showed that PlaSoMan saved around 30% and 7.5% of water, with a yield loss of only 10% and 2.5% compared to FarMan and IrriMan, respectively. Thus, PlaSoMan showed satisfactory irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) over the two years. Moreover, IrriMan and PlaSoMan had lower blue water requirement (BWR) values than FarMan. Finally, PlaSoMan reached the highest value of the yield quality indicator, which combined total yield and brix degree. Thus, the new system, which assesses both plant water status and soil moisture levels, appears to be associated with high-quality and water-friendly tomato product...