Crisis Communication

Crises create a great degree of uncertainty and threaten the reputation and the relations of the organization as well as its stakeholders, therefore, they represent a turning point for organizations. Thus, organizations that wish to continue existing are involved in the crisis management process which includes efforts to eliminate uncertainty and threats against their existence. The aim of this article is to evaluate the process of crisis management and communication within an interactive framework.

Research on crisis communication has traditionally focused on private organisations’ reputation and blame avoidance strategies. As a result, there is limited knowledge on crisis communication from the perspective of public organisations.This is troublesome as public organisations have substantial responsibilities for preparing, communicating and managing large-scale crisis events. In order to be able to better conceptualise public organisations’ crisis communication, a typology based on communication aims and orientations is introduced. According to the typology, public organisations engage in two dimensions of crisis communication: reputation-oriented vs. resilience-oriented and strategic vs. operational.These dimensions are illustrated and discussed by empirical examples from the Queensland floods of 2010/2011.The paper ends with a discussion on how to understand these dimensions of crisis communication in relation to public organisations’ priorities, processes and practices.

This book offers a new and original perspective on crisis communication based on the theory of the Rhetorical Arena and the so-called multivocal approach. According to this approach, we gain a more dynamic and complex understanding of organizational crises if we focus not only on the crisis communication produced by the organization in crisis but also take into account the many other voices who start communicating when a crisis breaks out (e.g., the news media, customers, employees, trade associations, politicians, activist groups, and PR experts).

Aimed at an audience of students in corporate communication, public relations, and management and organization studies, the book provides:
• An in-depth overview of the five key dimensions of organizational crises, crisis management and crisis communication.
• A comprehensive introduction to the theory of the Rhetorical Arena and the multivocal approach to crisis communication, including some of the most important voices inside the arena.
• A series of important (inter)national case studies and case examples in each chapter.
• A companion website with learning resources for both teachers and students.

The study of crisis in higher education remains an important area of research for scholars and a relevant area of interest for higher education leaders who must anticipate and effectively address the ever-increasing and wide-ranging crisis situations. Using Weick’s notion of retrospective sensemaking, this project attempts to theoretically reframe crisis as a discursive opportunity for university leaders to engage in identity construction. By approaching issues of crisis leadership through a communicative framework, this article proposes four discursive themes and two tensions related to academic leadership identity during times of crisis based on interviews with college and university presidents.

Immediately following the Bangkok Ratchaprasong Bombing incident in 2015, Twitter and web forum ‘Pantip’ became key avenues for the public to communicate and seek information to help make sense of a senseless situation. During critical periods of the crisis, media organizations’ Twitter account and online news were the main sources of information. The purpose of this study is to understand the relationship between online news coverage and the public sphere in social media contributing to the collective “sense-making” during a violent crisis. This case study is based on content analysis of Twitter, web forum "Pantip" and five news websites nine days after the bomb
blast at Ratchaprasong intersection. The results will demonstrate that online news and social media public sphere can play a vital role in collective “sense-making” during crises and the emotional pattern change is influenced by news coverage. Journalists play an important role as information seekers and fact distributor, while the online public sphere is used to gather information, discuss possible reasons behind the bomb attack, and crowdsource efforts to find the suspect. If news
coverage can provide the necessary information, confusion and panic is likely to decrease. Thus, the study expands on the suggestion of the model of participatory process between collective online communities and journalists in times of crises to foster a more effective “sense-making” process.

Understanding terrorism as a communicative action is the base of this research, which firstly tries to revisit communication in crisis caused by terrorism, through the prism of Kenneth Burke’s dramatistic theory as well as other authors’ contributions. Secondly, it searches to propose a qualitative model to analyze the communication of a government in the aftermath of a terrorist attack. The final aim of this article is to suggest a methodology that helps study how is the communication strategy of any government in that context of crisis.
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Partiendo de la consideración del terrorismo como acción comunicativa, la presente investigación realiza, en primer lugar, una relectura de la comunicación de crisis causadas por el terrorismo a la luz de la teoría dramatística de Kenneth Burke y de las aportaciones de otros autores. En
segundo lugar, tomando como base esta reformulación, propone un modelo cualitativo para analizar la comunicación que despliega un gobierno tras la crisis generada por una acción terrorista. La finalidad es sugerir un método que ayude a estudiar cómo son los trazos comunicativos que
dibuja un gobierno en ese contexto de crisis.

This study seeks to investigate the role of corporate associations of Corporate Ability (CA) and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) on consumers’ brand evaluation and buying intentions in brand crisis, questioning the positioning of a product on performance or values. According to the results of the experimental study, corporate association of CSR has a positive direct effect on brand evaluation. Likewise, corporate association of CA also has a positive direct effect on brand evaluation but two times stronger than CSR. Regarding the relationship between CA or CSR and buying intentions, results indicate indirect effects, only through the brand evaluation. The invariance of the proposed relationships between the different types of product positioning (performance vs. values) was examined, without finding any significant differences that would establish a moderating role of product positioning.

The COVID-19 pandemic placed a spotlight, unlike any other crisis in recent memory, on the important and challenging public role of the crisis communicator. This work is difficult in the heat of a pandemic, with situations and information changing daily, and some crisis communicators succeeded and some failed. Effective crisis communicators of all types-politicians, corporate leaders, and doctors-warned people about the dangers of the new coronavirus, provided instructions on how to limit its damage, and published statistics of the prevalence of the virus in the community. Spreading crisis communication messages was not limited to professionals: everyone seemed to be doing crisis communication work, even ordinary social media users simply retweet-ing the recommendations to wash hands and wear masks. Failures in crisis communication involved slow responses and the circulation of misinformation. The four articles in this special issue on Canadian crisis communication research were written before the pandemic. Yet the authors cover topics in healthcare, communication technology, and politics that are directly relevant to the challenges of doing COVID-19 crisis communication. Early in the pandemic, the effect of COVID-19 on the Canadian healthcare system was, naturally, top of mind, and criticism circulated. In Ontario, for example, criticism of health crisis communicators fell in two categories: inconsistent public messaging by health officials and politicians about the prevalence of community transmission of the virus and the lack of information transparency during the early days of the pandemic (Doolittle

Özet
Krizler, örgütlerin önleme ve uyum mekanizmalarını yetersiz hale getirerek mevcut değerlerini, amaçlarını ve varsayımlarını tehdit eden ve bu tehditlere karşı acele cevap verilmesini zorunlu kılan, gerginlik verici durumlardır. Krizler ve önemli olaylar çoğu kez beklenmedik olaylar olarak tabir edilir ve güvenlik güçlerinin rutin görevleri dışında nadiren karşılaştıkları olaylardır. Gerek beklenme-dik oluşları gerekse önceden gerekli hazırlıkların yapılmamış olması gibi nedenlerle toplum içerisinde olumsuz etkileri olabilir ve iyi yönetilmediği takdirde toplum düzenini bozabileceğinden tamiri oldukça zordur ve uzun yıllar sürebilir. Toplumun huzur ve güvenliğini sağlamak için gece gündüz çalışan güvenlik güçlerinin, krizlerin hayatın bir gerçeği olduğunu ve herhangi bir zamanda herhangi bir yerde karşısına çıkabileceğini, bu sebeple günlük rutin görevlerle mücadele ederken beklenmedik olaylara da hazırlıklı olmaları gerektiğini akıllarından çıkarmamaları gerekmektedir. Bu çalışmada, kriz ve önemli olayların polis için ne demek olduğu, bir süreç olarak krizlerin nasıl yönetilmesi gerektiği, geleneksel krizlerin dışında modern ve gelecekteki krizlerin yönetiminin nasıl bir bakış açısıyla ele alınması gerektiği hususları irdelenecektir. Krizlerin olumsuz etkilerinin azaltılması konusunda farklı görüşler değerlendirilecek ve etkili bir liderlik yöne-timi ile krize girmiş veya kriz riski taşıyan örgütlerin en az hasarla krizden nasıl çıkabileceği hususu tartışılacaktır. Güvenlik hizmetlerinde, özellikle poliste, kriz yönetimi süreci değerlendirilecektir. Diğer taraftan, genellikle olumsuz bir kav-ram olarak görülse de iyi yönetildiğinde krizlerin örgütler için korkulacak bir durum olmaktan çıkabileceği, gerek toplum gerekse de kurum ve çalışanlar için bir fırsat olabileceği hususu tartışılacaktır.



ALINTILAMA ÖNERİSİ
Pamuk, Z. (2014), Kriz Yönetimi Stratejileri, Harmancı, F. M; Gözübenli, M. ve Zengin, C. (Ed.), "Güvenlik Sektöründe Temel Stratejiler" içinde (s.305-330). Nobel Yayınevi, ISBN:978-605-133-960-3

ALINTILAMA ÖNERİSİ
Pamuk, Z. (2014), Kriz Yönetimi Stratejileri, Harmancı, F. M; Gözübenli, M. ve Zengin, C. (Ed.), "Güvenlik Sektöründe Temel Stratejiler" içinde (s.305-330). Nobel Yayınevi, ISBN:978-605-133-960-3

This article describes the failure of issue management communication in resolving an enduring pollution crisis stretching over two decades in South Africa's South Durban Industrial Basin (SDIB). A crisis of responsibility has arisen from a postmodern, neoliberal order. Concerns of residents are overridden in favour of nationally significant economic growth objectives. As a result " local " issues are communicated by global coalitions seeking environmental justice through modernist notions of " science " communicated in a postmodern, global context. The lack of public confidence, trust and the unmet expectations of participation in the environmental decision-making of government agencies and corporations is revealed. Local mobilisations look to broader spaces of engagement, including international activist organisations and international media as the unresolved crisis is deepened by state coercion and industry intransigence.

This study focuses on how Turkish Airlines (THY) and Air France (AF) managed their communication attempts after the unfortunate accidents of TK 1951 on February 25, 2009 near Amsterdam Schiphol Airport and AF 447 on June 1, 2009 in Atlantic Ocean. Evaluating the efforts in a framework, author sets out to discuss THY’s and AF’s performance in four important areas under eight headings: coordination of the messages, acknowledging uncertainty and taking responsibility, reaching the stakeholders and making use of online media tools. Hopefully, the results of this research will help THY and AF in specific, and the airline industry in general, to improve and develop their immediate crisis response strategies.

Guided by framing theory, a quantitative content analysis was conducted on news programming from five transnational satellite news channels that broadcast to/from the Arab world-Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera English, Al Arabiya, Alhurra, and BBC Arabic. The project examined if differences exist between the networks, and between two dimensions of a network taxonomy-western and liberal commercial-in how Arab Spring news selection and content was visually framed. A systematic comparative analysis was conducted on visual coverage of the civil unrest in Tunisia, Algeria, Yemen, Egypt, Libya, and Syria. Three entire newscasts from each network airing between December, 2010 and June, 2011, were analyzed. The data from 1,951 shots reveal both similarities and differences in how the networks utilized the human interest and political frames in their Arab Spring coverage. Results revealed no difference in the application of the human interest frame between western and liberal networks. However, the comparison between the individual networks revealed that Alhurra invoked the political frame more often than Al Jazeera and BBC Arabic.

In the context of the United Airlines crisis, this study investigated the relationships among customers’ ethical
judgment, trust and distrust toward United Airlines, and post-crisis behavioral intentions. Results from an online
survey (N = 579) demonstrated that customers’ negative ethical judgment was positively associated with the
level of trust and negatively predicted their distrust toward the corporation. Distrust had a bigger impact on
stakeholders’ behavioral intentions such as information seeking, mobilizing, and consulting than trust. Findings
indicated the important role of customers in corporate crisis management. Theoretical and practical implications
were discussed.

Meta-governance recently emerged in the field of governance as a new approach which claims that its use enables modern states to overcome problems associated with network governance.
This thesis shares the view that networks are an important feature of contemporary politics
which must be taken seriously, but it also maintains that networks pose substantial analytical and political challenges. It proceeds to investigate the potential possibilities and problems associated with meta-governance on both theoretical and empirical levels.
The theoretical discussion examines meta-governance in relation to governmentality, and it puts forward the claim that meta-governance may be understood as a specific type of neo-liberal governmentality. The meta-governance perspective regards networks as a complementary structure to traditional administration that can be utilized in the implementation and realization of public policy, but which also preserves the self-regulating and flexible character of networks. This generates a contradiction between the goals of public management and the character of networks that requires further investigation.
The combination of the specific dynamics of the political field of security, the diminishing role of sovereign powers, the emergence of security networks, and the meta-governance stance adopted by the Swedish state constitutes a situation that should have been favorable for the successful employment of meta-governance. The empirical investigation of meta-governance is divided into two parts. The first part reviews the historical process involved and shows how the
Swedish government and public authorities have adopted a meta-governance stance. The second analyzes the specific instruments and strategies that have been deployed in the governance of security communications and in the management of Sweden’s new security communications
system which is an important aspect of security networks. The historical study together with the analysis of the meta-governance tools deployed reveals that the meta-governors neither reached the goals specified, nor fulfilled the overall purpose of successful security communications.
I argue on the basis of the theoretical and empirical findings obtained in the present study that it is very difficult to successfully employ meta-governance in respect to security and crisis management, and that we have sound reasons to suspect that meta-governance will run into similar difficulties in other political fields as well. I conclude that meta-governance is a far more difficult practice than has been anticipated by existing theories and policy recommendations. Turning to meta-governance as a way to govern and control organizations may in fact lead to further fragmentation and distortion of public politics.
Keywords: meta-governance, meta-governance stance, governance, governmentality,
sovereign power, political power, networks, security, communications systems, processtracing,
interpretive policy analysis, Sweden, KBM, MSB, RAKEL

La última obra de Mario Riorda y Silvia Bentolila (2020), titulada Cualquiera tiene un plan hasta que te pegan en la cara. Aprender de las crisis, no nació en un año cualquiera. Nació en el año en que todo cambió producto de una pandemia que hizo al mundo entero entrar en crisis y poner en discusión la idea misma de normalidad. Es una obra que surge de la reflexión cruzada de las ciencias sociales y de las ciencias médicas y psiquiátricas, identificando los marcos interpretativos que permiten caracterizar la idea de crisis, su complejidad y naturaleza. También permite evaluar el impacto que la crisis tiene en los individuos, como personas y como líderes políticos a cargo de la gestión de la crisis. Lejos de proponer un plan metódico para la gestión “exitosa” de la crisis, la obra comienza reflexionando sobre su impacto en cualquier planificación y en cómo la crisis echa por tierra la idea de control y certidumbre. Asumir el fracaso del plan es el primer paso para avanzar en la reflexión sobre los procesos y las herramientas que posibilitan un proceso resiliente de aprendizaje. La obra se presenta como una cartografía abierta en la que la única salida posible de la crisis es animándose a aprender desde una dimensión plenamente humana y asumiendo la vulnerable condición social del hombre en su relación con el mundo.

Scholars have examined the ways organizations practice post-crisis communication strategies, including deny, diminish, and rebuild. The current study explores the extent to which a stakeholder-formed organization utilizes post-crisis discourse of renewal to rebuild, recover, and renew the Catholic Church after allegations of sexual abuse of minors publicly surfaced in the United States. Open-ended semi-structured interviews with founders and executive committee members of Leadership Roundtable revealed stakeholders practiced discourse of renewal to help the Catholic Church, an offending organization, recover from a crisis. This study also assessed the extent to which God and religion motivated stakeholders' responses. Results suggest religion is a critical motivating factor in stakeholders' responses to a crisis.

Communication efforts has been transforming into digital manner since the new media tools and social media platforms have appeared on the stage. As a consequence of this process, crisis management and crisis communication techniques have been adapted to fore-mentioned digital context. This paper primarily aims to develop an understanding on phases of the moment of crisis on social media and then reveal the characteristic and sentiment of the posts. In terms of the study, detailed literature on transforming paradigms of the communication, social media and crisis communication has been reviewed. Soon after, tweets and Facebook posts about the electronic festival were fetched in order to analyze. In next step, the collected data were analyzed in order to reveal sentiment and characteristics of the posts and categorize the phases of the moment of crisis. Under the light of analyzed data fire model, which illustrates the moment of crisis on social media, has been proposed.

The prescriptive approach to crisis communication strategy (CCS) selection has long been criticized for lack of flexibility and adaptability. To address this issue, this study proposes an emergent approach to strategy formulation by focusing on contextual impacts on social media crises and their implications for CCS. An online discussion on Sina Weibo, a Chinese microblogging platform, about a high-profile homicide in aMcDonald’s restaurant, is taken as the case. Based on a multidisciplinary theoretical framework that consists of the theory of rhetorical arena and framing theory, an inductive framing analysis of 100 top forwarded posts indicates a complex negotiation process among multiple crisis communicators through various crisis frames. The results suggest that selection of CCS should be from contextually based behavior through investigating interaction amongmultiple crisis communicators and examining the contexts inwhich crises
are situated. This study also contributes to advancing the CCS selectionmodel of Situational Crisis Communication Theory by integrating contextual factors.

Ottawa, Paris, Bamako, Bruxelles, Boston, Istanbul, Londres, Nairobi, Madrid, Oslo, les villes victimes d'attentats terroristes se multiplient. Après la stupeur et l'émoi, les populations sont en quête de sens pour interpreter l'irruption de l'étrange dans leur quotidien. Partant du cas de la fusillade au parlement d'Ottawa le 22 octobre 2014, le présent ouvrage évalue la place de la communication dans la compréhension et la gestion d'un acte terroriste.

This presentation is about two kinds of stories, the kinds of stories that journalists love, and the stories that organisations want to tell
Anxiety is a phenomenon, both the consequence and cause of crisis. People are anxious about climate change, global poverty, crime, refugees.
In this culture of increasing anxiety we have a need for answers.
We struggle to understand what is going on
We look for big answers
Stories matter. They matter more than ever.
Stories help us understand
Storytelling in its simplest form is a connection of cause and effect.
People tell stories
When telling a tale, people will change the order of events, include and exclude facts, change facts, lay heavy emphasis on certain facts, exaggerate dialogue
Why do we do this? To make the story more exciting, to entertain people, to shift blame, and to make ourselves look better
We are all prone to do this.
Part of the simplification of reality is the simplification of roles
In a court of law victims are often found guilty of wrongdoing, and villains receive mitigation because they have also tried to do right
In the news, these complexities tend to be stripped away. Victims are blameless and villains are virtueless. The characters are reduced to their main contribution to the story.

W artykule przedstawiono specyfikę kryzysów w mediach społecznościowych. Omówiono znaczenie i możliwe konsekwencje pojawienia się negatywnych wpisów użytkowników serwisów społecznościowych dotyczących organizacji. W oparciu o przegląd literatury, własne doświadczenia oraz analizę studiów przypadku, wskazano różnice pomiędzy kryzysami wizerunkowymi w mediach tradycyjnych oraz w social media. Zwrócono między innymi uwagę na wysoki poziom spontaniczności i szybkości reakcji użytkowników social media oraz wynikającą z tego wysoką dynamikę przebiegu sytuacji kryzysowych.
The paper presents the character of crises in social media. The importance and possible consequences of negative posts of social media users referring to an organisation have been discussed. Based on literature review, own experience and case study analysis, the differences between image crises in traditional media and social media are highlighted. Among other things, attention has been paid to the high level of spontaneity and responsiveness of social media users and the resulting high dynamics of social media crises.

This study seeks to investigate the role of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) on consumers’ emotions in product-harm crisis. The results of this experimental study indicate that positive prior CSR leads to higher sympathy and lower anger and schadenfreude toward the company, than negative prior CSR or lack of CSR information.The role of CSR importance, ascribed by the consumers and their moderating effect on the relationship between company’s CSR and consumers’ emotions was also pointed out.

Many directors and boards face challenges, difficult situations, multiple threats and related opportunities. Certain of them are shared, inter-related and multi-faceted. They impact upon many areas of corporate operation, supply and value chains, a variety of stakeholders and wider communities. Unlike situations that might suddenly and unexpectedly arise, certain of the threats have also been long predicted. They represent a challenge for board leadership and they need to be addressed by a combination of activities by multiple parties over a longer-time period than emergencies that may have been quickly tackled by crisis management teams in the past. They raise questions about the adequacy of crisis governance arrangements, how directors should prepare for crises and handle them, and whether there is also a crisis in corporate governance in terms of the ability of current approaches and practices to cope with crises in the contemporary business and market context and environmental, sustainability and climate change challenges that require collective and collaborative responses.

This study employs a content analysis to examine news coverage concerning Toyota’s recall crises from January 16, 2009, through November 21, 2012, in the following media: The New York Times, The Washington Post, USA Today, and the news releases listed on the Toyota official website. We examine how the media frame Toyota’s crises and responses, and whether the news coverage varied between mass media and Toyota’s releases. The findings shed light on the crisis communication in terms of response strategy selection. In tracking the ethics of the Toyota crisis in the years since its inception, combined with a content analysis conducted in this paper, the authors attempted to integrate the literature of crisis management with that of ethics in public relations. Ethics should be foremost among the considerations of an organization’s reputation and a primary factor of successful crisis management. The Toyota case has far reaching implications for ethical crisis management and recall strategy in the auto industry as a whole.

Abstract: The nuclear accident that occurred on April 26th, 1986 in Chernobyl, Ukraine is the first “major nuclear accident” of history. A badly designed and conducted safety test resulted in an explosion in the 4th reactor unit. Large quantities of radioactive material were released into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe, as well as over Balkans and Turkey.  Although the contamination was scattered irregularly due to meteorological conditions, it was significant in most of the affected countries, including Turkey, and raised concerns about the possible health problems which may be caused by radioactivity. The way the catastrophe was handled in Turkey as a disaster communications problem is worth being examined, as a case that shows what may happen in the absence of a proper communications strategy (as a part of a disaster management scheme) during a complex public health crisis. For this purpose, we surveyed old issues of two influential Turkish national newspapers, namely Hürriyet and Cumhuriyet from April 27th, 1986 to April 27th, 1987. Our research shows that Chernobyl’s nuclear fallout in Turkey was compounded by and resulted in a total public policy failure.  Turkish authorities preferred to assume the minimum responsibility possible, while usually creating confusion and disinformation when arguing about the incident. The case clearly indicated that there was a need to develop public information in the country.

Terrorism targeting corporate bodies remains one the greatest risks to the most critical intangible asset of any organization: reputation. Thus, effective crisis communication is critical during and after terror crisis to mitigate further damage on the reputation. To date, many studies around the globe have tended to focus on the role of the traditional media during terror crisis, paying minimal attention to organisations' use of social media during terror crisis. Using a descriptive qualitative case study, this study examined the role of social media during 2013 Westgate Mall terror attack, in Nairobi, Kenya. Findings revealed that the Interior Ministry (IM) used Twitter as the preferred social media platform to communicate with various stakeholders. Accommodative crisis response strategies were the most used by the IM. However, the ministry was plagued with inaccuracies and inconsistencies in its responses on social media compromising reputation of the government further. Bala...

When crisis occurs organization should respond the crisis quickly, open, and consistent. The emergence of new media makes the crisis more complex. New media, with its nature such as fast, interactive, many to many, could assist the organization in crisis communication. But on the other side, new media could also make the crisis more complex. The new media could make the pace of information, the uncertainty, and the rumors increasing. This paper discusses about how Malaysia Airlines using corporate website in communicating about the lost of flight MH 370. The first part of this paper describes the importance of using new media in crisis communication. The second part is literature review of the conceptual framework of crisis communication and new media (and social media) usage in crisis communication. The third part is findings and analysis about how Malaysia Airlines using their corporate website in crisis communication. The data of this part using Malaysia Airlines??? statements about the lost of MH-370 that posted in their corporate website: www.malaysiaairlines.com. The posting date is between 8th March 2014 and 25th May 2014. The analysis used Coombs??? (2006) crisis communication concept that consist of form and content. Form is what organization should do, and content is what organization should say in crisis. The last part is discussion and conclusion and several recommendations for further research. Keywords: corporate website, crisis communication, Malaysia Airlines, new media, public relations

Si en cualquier tipo de sector la crisis es una situación siempre propensa a ocurrir, en el turismo, que es un sistema conformado por un conjunto de diversos sectores, la crisis es un hecho con el que se lidia casi a diario. Gobiernos, empresas y sujetos del turismo están siempre propensos a ser afectados por el conflicto que se pudo haber originado en cualquiera de los componentes de este sistema o por el conflicto que ellos mismos causaron.

Background: In 2015, the Lufthansa Group faced the most severe crisis in its company history. A flight operated by its subsidiary Germanwings, crashed killing all 150 people on board. Whereas at an early stage the company was perceived as a victim of the crisis, later inquiries revealed that the co-pilot had intentionally brought down the plane and the company had prior knowledge of his mental state history.

Purpose: The thesis at hand aims at analyzing how the publics perceive crisis responsibility and, in turn, what implications this has on a company’s crisis communication. Scholars suggest specific crisis responses corresponding to specific types of crises and their underlying judgements of responsibility. A change in crisis type within the same crisis context, however, has not been empirically examined. The assumption is that when a change in crisis type occurs, a company will adapt its crisis response accordingly. This paper seeks to address this gap. 

Design/methodology: Two separately conducted content analyses were applied, focusing on the companies’ crisis communication and media coverage. To approach the research interest, a first analysis was performed to systematically categorize crisis response and a second to capture attributions of responsibility as reported in media coverage. The two analyses were then compared to identify relationships. 

Findings: Results indicate that attributions of responsibility in media coverage changed within the same crisis context, altering the perception of the companies involved in terms of controllability and accusations. Along with this change, response strategies showed tendencies emphasizing the respective response strategies. 

Implications: The results imply a need for careful media monitoring, in order to maintain control over what is being said about the organization in crisis, and address issues accordingly. Moreover, the findings add to the theoretical understanding of responsibility judgements underlying specific crisis types. 

Originality/value: This thesis contributes to the lack of research on a systematic understanding of levels of crisis responsibility and sets this into relation with the response strategies of a company in crisis.

Purpose:
This paper explored relational repair strategies of YouTube influencers and their viewers. Based on a co-constructed perspective, both apologies and viewer reactions were analyzed.

Methodology:
The paper was organized into three studies: 1) two cases; 2) four commentary videos: and, 3) 120 comments. According to relevance to the study, six methods were utilized.

Findings:
For the first case, the apology was dominated by the pseudo-apology strategy and offender-driven sequencing. The former deals with what was said; while, the latter embraces how the apology was constructed. Although he attempted to apply the apology strategy, it was also based on pseudo-apology elements. By prioritizing his needs to cast himself as a victimized offender, he neglected the aggrieved parties. Both the commentary videos and viewer comments negatively perceived the apology. In the second case, she blended apology and pseudo-apology strategies, with the latter employed more extensively. Her apology prominently featured a context-driven sequencing that detailed the circumstances. The negative perceptions of both sample groups indicate her apology was insincere.

Research Implications:
It is notable that commentary videos have not previously been examined in socially mediated crisis communication research. Because the in-depth reactions play a significant role in YouTube, they warrant further analysis. To capture nuances in the complexities of apologies and reactions, a multi-method design encompassing both what is said and how it is constructed will benefit future research.