Arctic

Findings and traces of early metallurgical production in the Far Northeast of Asia and Alaska show that the spread of bronze and iron metallurgy took place mainly along the Lena River towards of the Far Northeast, as well as to Taimyr. Spread of metallurgical technology is confirmed by the casting mould for a burin or awl, which was discovered in Eastern Chukotka on the Amguema River. However, metals in Chukotka were obviously too rare to trade until the first millennium AD. An eastward decline in emphasis on metals is evidenced. Across the Bering Strait, into Alaska, iron appeared nearly two thousand years later than it existed within the the Far Northeast of Asia. Traces of metallurgy production were not found in Alaska. The spread of metals across Northeast Asia to Alaska indicates the existence of lasting and persistent connections between the Lena River Basin, the Far Northeast and Chukotka.

Tourism is often identified as able to provide opportunities for indigenous populations. In northern Sweden, correspondingly tourism has been proposed to create employment opportunities and help preserve Sámi indigenous culture. Although there are numerous studies on the topic, they are lacking in a time dimension and comprehensiveness. Often they are based on limited case studies and narratives of those members of the indigenous population who have engaged in new activities successfully. Therefore, this work aims to investigate on a national scale how widespread are tourism occupations among reindeer herders and what are some of the characteristics of those engaged in them. This paper uses detailed census and population register data containing personal and professional information on reindeer herders in Sweden and their families spanning 50 years. The findings suggest that involvement in tourism is more common among reindeer herders than farmers. Moreover, involvement in tourism is highly gendered with women being more likely to be engaged in it. Findings also show that the type of tourism professions people are engaged in is more a result of the available geographical resource than an inherent inclination among reindeer herders to work with specific ields such as nature-based attractions.

In many ways Russia is an unlucky country. Throughout its history it has had political and dynastic problems, like many other nations, but Russia has regularly had these problems compounded and intensified by the freakish nature of its weather.

After the Cold War the security scenario in the Arctic has gone through drastic changes. Opposed to the state centric military security definitions that were dominant during the Cold War, academics now write about the different security aspects that need to be taken into consideration. The three types of security this article builds on are traditional-, environmental- and human security. The purpose of the study is to compare the declared policies of the eight member states of the Arctic Council - Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States - focusing on sovereignty, security and defense matters. The aim is to establish whether the new security scenario can be found reflected in the official policy papers of these states. The main conclusions are that even though the circumpolar states have developed new policies towards the Arctic they do not all mention all the relevant security aspects as such. That is not to say, however, that indications cannot be found within the policies by reading between the lines. By discussing such matters as environmental protection, supporting the rights of indigenous peoples and exercising their sovereign rights, the states are indeed touching all three security aspects: traditional-, environmental- and human.

Advanced modal analysis methods are integrated with seismic reconstructions, gravity/ magnetic, and well/core data, revealing the complex geo-history of Pangean organization, and its consequent tectonic break-up, mainly during the Cretaceous and Cenozoic 1,2. Sediment transport systems from orogenic Caledonian and Uralian terrains, as well as Fenno-Skandinavian shield areas, provide a wide variety of provenance signatures, as well clastic wedge basin fill sequences, recording the tectonic evolution of convergent margins creating the super-continent Pangea in this region. These sequences, are followed by rifting events related to the opening of the Arctic Ocean basins 3. Pronounced uplift and erosion episodes of Arctic Greenland-Norwegian continental margins also occur during these times of rifting. Such episodes are related to the lack of accommodation for Arctic sea-floor spreading rates, where the coupled continental margin drift rate is < ½ of the total ridge spreading rates, resulting in inversion displacement along pre-existing fault systems (inverse Beta motions). In more extreme cases, under-plating of the lithosphere, subduction and regional uplift can be realized over broad areas 4 , which would have significant implications for energy exploration in prospective basin areas, particularly where uplift/ erosion exceeds c. 1.5 km 5,6. These tectonically uplifted terrains may also contribute to the Earth's long-term climate shift from greenhouse to icehouse environmental conditions during the Cenozoic 7. The lack of accommodation for mainly North-South opening of the Arctic Ocean may be a global consequence of the predominant equatorial East-West spreading creating the Atlantic Ocean further South, including that of the Icelandic ridge system. This appears to be a common feature of Arctic continental margins, and possibly passive margins in general 8. Ultimately, this lack of accommodation may herald termination of the prevailing Wilson cycle 9 , where initiation of oceanic subduction below the uplifted continental margin followed by the transformation of passive continental margins into a convergent margin with thrust fault deformations, subduction, and volcanism, which begins the next super-continental cycle.

Zusammenfassung: Die englischen Territorialansprüche des 17. Jahrhunderts waren vergessen und das arktische Spitzbergen war abermals ein Niemands-land, als zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts Steinkohle seinen Weg vom Archipel zum norwegischen Festland fand. Ein internationaler " Kohlerausch " brach aus, an dem neben Briten auch Norweger, Amerikaner, Russen, Niederländer und Schweden beteiligt waren. Anhand von vier britischen Bergbau-und Explorationsunternehmen wird erläutert, wie das bisher periphere Spitzber-gen zunehmend an wirtschaftlicher und politischer Bedeutung gewann. In diesem Prozess spielten die britischen Territorialansprüche, die zu ihrer Blüte-zeit mehr als ein Fünftel des Archipels umfassten, eine ausschlaggebende Rolle, obgleich Spitzbergen ab 1925 zu Norwegen gehörte. Die historischen Einzelheiten werden derzeit von ungenauen Darstellungen überschattet. Hier-durch sind die Parallelen zum heutigen " Arktisrausch " nur schwer erkennbar, obwohl diese allen Beteiligten eine Lehre sein sollten.

Abstract: The English territorial claims of the seventeenth century were forgotten, and Arctic Spitsbergen was yet again a no man's land, when coal found its way from the archipelago to the Norwegian mainland at the beginning of the twentieth century. An international " coal rush " broke out, which in addition to the British also involved Norwegians, Americans, Russians, Dutch, and Swedes. Based on four British mining and exploration companies, this paper explains how the previously peripheral Spitsbergen gained increasing economic and political importance. In this process, the British territorial claims, which in their heyday comprised a fifth of the landmass, played a decisive role, although Spitsbergen belonged to Norway after 1925. The historical details are currently overpowered by inaccurate representations. As a result, the parallels to today's " Arctic rush " are difficult to recognize, although these should be a lesson for all modern stakeholders.

Assemblage is one way to examine complexities in today’s world. In Deleuzian thinking, assemblage refers to both the act of assembling diverse elements and the arrangements of these elements for a specific purpose. Importantly, it is the interaction between elements that allows the assemblage to become more than the sum of its parts. Applying this concept to long-term research on Cold Rush – the transformation of the Arctic commons into commodities – I argue that examining the boom, bust, and buzz around the commons can be fruitfully conceptualised and studied with assemblage. This approach brings with it an ontological shift from binaries into multiplicities and multiple temporalities. Assemblage also sheds light on the role of discourse in these transformations and shows how language gains its productive force only in collaboration with other elements.

Modern ethnic processes in different groups of Enets occur, depending on the specific ethno-demographic situation. In the northern (tundra) group of weak processes of cross-breeding with Caucasians, but actively mixing with the Nenets. The southern group is dominated by Russian, and in the northern Nenets. In the northern group, Mixed Enets-Nenets Nenets population gradually fixed identity. certain "ethnic balance" observed in the south. Natural population growth more noticeable in the southern group, as there are more Caucasoid Métis, who are more likely than the Nenets, Enets people define themselves as Enets. For example, we are seeing the results of Enets passive adaptation of the ethnic group. Enets, long time to adapt to changes in the cultural and natural environment, have come under the influence of numerous and more capable of adapting Nenets ethnos. As a result, Enets lost many members of their own ethnic culture. In the future, we can predict the complete dissolution of the tundra Enets groups among neighboring peoples and the preservation of a formal identity among Enets Forest Enets group.

The Northern Sea Route (NSR) for the Russian Federation is a strategically important maritime communication with the status of a historically established national transport artery. Despite its applicability to the Arctic, and therefore to the waters of the NSR, the norms and provisions of the modern international maritime law, and, first of all, the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS), Russia declares the important role of the national legislation on the regulation of navigation on the NSR. Such a situation is conditioned by the existing historical practice, the tacit consent of most states, as well as the special environmental vulnerability of the Arctic region and the desire to prevent the marine environment pollution due to the navigation. Among the main opponents of this approach is the USA, which traditionally disputes the unified permitting regime for navigation along the NSR as an example of Russia's extremely broad interpretation of the norms and provisions of UNCLOS. The first part of the paper will show how those legal approaches used by Russia to introduce the national level of the NSR regulation, i.e., the concept of internal historical waters and the method of straight base-lines, do not contradict UNCLOS, as they go beyond its limits and are based mostly on customary norms of international law (the so-called international custom) rather than treaties. The U.S. disagreement with such an assertion is discredited by the fact that Washington is not a full party to UNCLOS, and thus cannot fully enjoy all the prerogatives it has introduced.

Long-distance commuting (also called fly-in/fly-out or FIFO) is a system of labour-force provision for industrial operations in remote regions; e. g., at oil and gas extraction sites in the Russian Arctic. Employees  commute on a rotational shift basis of 14 days in and 14 days out (14/14) or on a 30/30 roster. This chapter is based on longterm ethnographic research in the northwestern Siberian Arctic. The theoretical considerations relate to coping strategies for the two main constraints inherent to this way of life: the separation of meaningful social spheres (home and on duty) and the ascription of deviance to this lifestyle. People who cope well with this multilocal and mobile way of life pursue two strategies: (1) the conscious integration of space through the simultaneous connecting and separation of the spheres in order to constitute an integrated, enlarged and meaningful social and geographical space and (2) a flexible process of normalisation which turns the ascription of deviance into potential.

http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0156-09764

In interstate and international interaction, norm breaking is a frequent occurrence and cause of conflict. This article discusses how to deal with such behavior when it occurs in maritime space. The particularities of distinct maritime spaces and their level of regulation provide distinct opportunities. States may then take a hybrid approach by taking into account international law in more regulated areas, but seeking alternatives in less regulated ones. To discourage norm breaking and to promote cooperative approaches toward shared challenges in maritime space, stronger ocean governance that considers hybridity seems important. The article discusses these aspects in the three cases of the Arctic, the Indian Ocean, and the Mediterranean and derives first lessons for strengthened ocean governance.

This chapter considers opportunities for Arctic states to manage and conserve biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction in the High Arctic and reviews the positions of China and the EU in relation to such potential frameworks.

As the Arctic Ocean coastal states have adopted in 2014 significant steps towards the management of High Arctic marine living resources, the role of third states with regards to these development needs to be considered. Indeed, the international legal regime applicable to the High Seas provides very limited prerogatives for coastal states to restrain the rights of third states for the sake of marine conservation.

The chapter first introduces the global legal regime applicable to biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction as well as relevant ongoing processes meant to further define this regulatory framework. The initiatives undertaken by the Arctic states to protect the Arctic marine environment are then reviewed. The chapter concludes by considering the positions on this issue of two major non-Arctic actors having expressed strong interest in the region: China and the European Union.

This study highlights that China and EU are likely to have different positions on the conservation of marine biodiversity in the High Arctic. The Arctic states will thus need to accommodate the diverging perspectives of non-Arctic states if they decide to establish a regional arrangement to conserve high seas living resources in the Arctic.

The attention to the Arctic is fuelled by the prospect of economic development, emerging shipping routes, and changing geopolitics. Since 1996 the Arctic Council, an intergovernmental forum for Arctic cooperation, has served to foster environmental protection and sustainable development in the region. The Arctic Council is composed of the eight Arctic states with territory north of the Arctic Circle and six Permanent Participants representing Arctic Indigenous People. Since its inception, the Arctic Council has admitted 13 non-Arctic Observer states. However, in 2021 three new candidates (Ireland, Czech Republic, and Estonia) were not successful with their applications despite proven records of Arctic research and influence in the region. This article will elaborate on the dynamics of Observer states admittance to the Arctic Council. Signalling theory is applied in this paper as a theoretical lens. More precisely, this paper will concentrate on fuzzy signalling, because such signals do not fall into binary classification and require a lot of contextual geopolitical information for interpretation. The data consists of research articles, publicly available statements, and media articles. The findings demonstrate that the admittance of Observer states to the Arctic Council can be viewed as fuzzy signalling. This paper will argue that fuzzy signalling is intrinsic to a multi-actor governance forum like the Arctic Council, where decisions are made on a consensus basis.

Планируемое уменьшение ледового покрова в Арктике ведет к изменению геополитического статуса этого морского региона: он становится более открытым для осуществления различных видов морехозяйственной деятельности. Приход в Арктику всех заинтересованных игроков несет с собой существенный рост рисков и угроз, прежде всего невоенного характера. Особую важ-ность приобретает проблема обеспечения экологической безопасности – защиты и сохранения морской среды и ее биоразнообразия. Противодействие этим видам угроз требует как индивиду-альных усилий стран арктической пятерки, так и принятия коллективных мер. Ключевые слова: Арктика, Арктический совет, арктические проливы, Северный морской путь, Конвенция ООН по морскому праву, морская безопасность, " мягкая " безопасность, экологическая безопасность, морской терроризм, пиратство.

This article concerns the Islamic community in contemporary Russia and the dynamic identities of Muslim migrants there. The focus of this study is the religious and wider social practices of those Muslim migrants who are considered leaders of local micro-communities, enjoy respect within their religious community, and have steadfast religious authority within their circles. These practices are considered in their local religious and migrant contexts through the prism of such concepts as religious individualism, everyday lived Islam, and tactical religion. The author shows multiple ties that emerge between the region’s Muslims, specifically between unofficial local leaders, and other believers who need this authority to elaborate their everyday Muslim practices in the context of migration and the authority crisis in Russian Islam. This study emphasizes the importance of the everyday in the formation of individual religiosity and shows how a local Muslim environment builds up around certain key figures outside the mosque.

This is rather the first book with a title "Philosophy of Law in the Arctic" in the literature. This philosophy of law is a very wide and cross-disciplinary area of research: between law, philosophy, anthropology, history, cultural ecology or environmental studies. I have no doubts that we have done such kind of philosophy in the academia so far, not using this term, but keeping up with the concept, the idea.
The book is a result of research conducted by many members of the Sub-group of Philosophy of Law in the Arctic (the University of the Arctic). This team seems a very interdisciplinary academic group. Our cooperation bears fruit.
The aim of the book is to define and systematise Arctic legal philosophy problems. In this book, there are five thematic parts. Each part consists of two-five short articles (we can call them also chapters or papers). These are the sixteen short articles all together. Each article consists of between six and fourteen pages. So going further, what we see in the book then is, in fact, a set of both theoretical and practical papers1. The topics of these papers (chapters) are different as the authors are different while representing a wide-ranging scope of academic disciplines or specialisations. Each paper is followed by a relevant bibliography, which might be helpful for other scholars interested in the field. The seventeen writers come from such countries as Finland (4), Norway (1), Canada (3), Poland (3), Japan (2), Austria (1), Ireland (1), and England (2). Some of them have Arctic indigenous roots (3). In the end
of the book, there is a very original attachment - the map of Arctic Canada.

Though it has been home for centuries to indigenous peoples who have mastered its conditions, the Arctic has historically proven to be a difficult region for governments to administer. Extreme temperatures, vast distances, and widely dispersed patterns of settlement have made it impossible for bureaucracies based in far-off capitals to erect and maintain the kind of infrastructure and institutions that they have built elsewhere. As climate change transforms the polar regions, this book seeks to explore how the challenges of governance are developing and being met in Alaska, the Canadian Far North, and Greenland, while also drawing upon lessons from the region's past. Though the experience of each of these jurisdictions is unique, their place within democratic, federal systems and the prominence within each of them of issues relating to the rights of indigenous peoples situates them as part of an identifiably 'North American Arctic.' Today, as this volume shows, their institutions are evolving to address contemporary issues of security, environmental protection, indigenous rights, and economic development.

Science diplomacy can be defined as building scientific collaborations among states to deal with common problems as well as addressing global challenges. This term also involves building constructive partnerships globally owing to the fact that both science and diplomacy is associated with open-ended negotiations based upon peaceful processes. After the end of the Cold War, there has been a remarkable interest in science diplomacy especially in the UK, United States, Japan and China more recently. On the other hand the Arctic region, which is perceived as a unique zone of peace and scientific collaboration, has been undergoing substantial transformation due to human induced climate change. Therefore, variety of emerging actors has accelerated both scientific and social cooperation across the region which determines the nexus between science diplomacy and geopolitics as well. This process has also transformed the structure of the Arctic Council and non-Arctic states are accepted as observers. Consequently, a more complicated and many-sided diplomatic system has emerged involving scientific institutions, non-governmental organizations, media and the network of regulators alongside governments. The aim of this study is to examine the role of science diplomacy in Arctic affairs. The role of emergent actors in the region is also discussed.

Russia and NATO still have significant military strength, albeit much reduced since the Cold War. The US also plans to improve its military presence in the Arctic in the future. According to Russian experts, the constant presence of the US nuclear submarine fleet and deploying sea-based missile defence systems that are being actively developed by the Americans will create opportunities in the Arctic to intercept Russian ballistic missiles and deliver a pre-emptive strike. But, as Stephanie Pezard puts it, “Russia is deploying capabilities that can defend a region it deems highly strategic, but could also, in theory, be employed for other purposes—for instance, locking Norway (a NATO member) behind an anti-access/area denial ‘bubble’”. Understanding Russia’s economic weaknesses, Moscow is concerned that the West (mainly) and other powers plan to deprive Russia of the Northern Sea Route and the economic resources of the Arctic. And to prevent such an outcome, Russia is strengthening its military presence in the region as a tool of détente.

Science diplomacy, which is fundamentally defined as a threefold process to elicit sustained ways of communication and cooperation, has incentivized collaboration even among the non-allied states. As the global challenges such as human-induced climate change has become one of the urgent matters in terms of sustainability of the world, a trust building framework to respond to these challenges is offered. At their core, both science and diplomacy is associated with open-ended negotiations based upon peaceful processes. In addition to Arctic states, active participation of European Union as well as Asian states and their scientific contributions have initiated a new form of governance in the Arctic. Hence, at the nexus of science and diplomacy, science diplomacy holds potential to promote sustainability governance across the Arctic region. The aim of this study is to examine the role of science diplomacy as a new form of governance in the Arctic. How science diplomacy generates solutions for inherent tensions as well as its boundaries and limitations are also discussed.

"Science, Geopolitics and Culture in the Polar Region" is the second of five volumes in the series "The Nordic Experience" – the outcome of an interdisciplinary, multi-year research project at the Centre for Baltic and East European Studies at Stockholm’s Södertörn University.

This is the first book to exclusively address tourism and indigenous peoples in the circumpolar North. It examines how tourism in indigenous communities is influenced by academic and political discourses, and how these communities are influenced by tourism. The volume focuses on the ambivalence relating to tourism as a modern force within ethnic groups who are concerned with maintaining indigenous roots and traditional practices. It seeks to challenge stereotypical understandings of indigenousness and indigeneity and considers conflicting imaginaries of the Arctic and Arctic indigenous tourism. The book contains case studies from Canada, Greenland, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia and will be of interest to postgraduate students and researchers of tourism, geography, sociology, cultural studies and anthropology.
Arvid

... When the fed-eral government moved these scattered groups into the present-day settlements, the concentrated and sedentary Inuit were no ... of their studies are elegantly presented in The Greenland Mummies, edited by Jens Peder Hart Hansen, Jorgen Meldgaard and Jorgen ...

The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is considered as the universal legal regulator towards maritime spaces and resources. However, many states are directly and indirectly violating its basic Articles and political practice of. This situation gives background for the main question of this book: has the UNCLOS become a genuine «Constitution» of the Seas; would the regime, generated by it, remain unchanged in the new international conditions?

The study aims to identify the main problems associated with the provision of professional tourism training and the creation of a tourism talent pool for the Russian Arctic in the context of Industry 4.0. The article analyses the current socioeconomic factors that determine the development of the Russian Arctic. The pedagogical environment's crucial aspects are systematised to ensure an effective educational process in modern tourism pedagogy. The necessary conditions required for creating the high competitiveness of tourism specialist are determined. The factors and features of tourism personnel training for the Russian Arctic are systematised. An analysis of the organic tourism design concept is carried out. Based on the results obtained, methodological recommendations for the Tourism 4.0 educational process and the formation of a Russian Arctic tourism talent pool are proposed. The necessity of developing the latest competencies for competitive specialists and vocational guidance in the needs of Tourism 4.0 has been substantiated. A model of arctic tourism vocational guidance activities withing the integration of "education throughout life" into the full educational and life cycle is proposed. The need to increase the level of digital literacy and in-demand informational, tech skills, communication competencies and over-professional skills of the tourism talent pool for the Russian Arctic has been substantiated. The latest technologies that must be studied and applied in tourism pedagogy are listed.

Cultural landscapes represent social structures, interests, and values. At the same time, the observer can derive, interpret, reinterpret, and inscribe new meanings to the landscape. Landscapes that are saturated with ideologically charged symbols dictate to the viewer what can and cannot be seen and derived from them. On the other hand, landscapes that are abandoned, ruined, partly erased, and deprived of actors, activities, and political context present a different sort of setting. What can be derived from them? What or whom do they represent? Can the current conceptualisations help to capture their meanings? This paper attempts to expand the debate on cultural landscapes, by exploring the linkages to the concepts of haunting and ghosts. It uses the Russian settlements of Barentsburg, Pyramiden, and Grumant, located in Svalbard (Norway), as an example. The paper argues that ruined and abandoned landscapes are 'haunted', and that the viewer can engage with a haunted landscape through interactions with 'ghosts'-fictitious agents that fulfil two roles: i) allowing the viewer to associate with the ghost, and ii) reminding the viewer of the bygone actors, forces, and contexts that shaped the landscape.

Rainwater collection is a common source of household water in developed and Q1 developing communities where treated on-site water is not available. Although rainwater catchment has been practiced for generations in rural Alaska communities, there is little data available on the quality and quantity of rainwater resources. Forty-eight rainwater samples were collected from nine communities in Alaska over 2 years. Samples were tested for physical water quality parameters, metals, and bacteria. Characteristics of household catchments were recorded. Rainwater quantity in two communities was evaluated. Overall, high-quality water was observed in rain catchments, with average total organic carbon (TOC) and turbidity being lower than or equal to those values in other published rainwater studies. pH was consistently low. Over 80% of samples were below the United States limits for metals and met international microbiological water quality standards. However, variation was observed between households, communities, indoor/outdoor bacteria samples, covered/uncovered storage containers, and over time. The quantity of rainwater available for catchment could supply 17-40% of annual household water and is projected to increase in future decades according to Alaska climate models. Best practices are recommended for rural Alaska communities to maintain the naturally high quality of rainwater and take advantage of large quantities of rainwater available on-site.

Содержание метана над арктическими морями, в слое воздуха на высоте ниже 4 км, растёт, а область, где регистрируется повы-шенная концентрация метана, расширяется. Превышение кон-центрации измеряли относительно района сравнения — области над поверхностью моря, расположенной между Скандинавией и Исландией. Изменения концентрации метана относительно рай-она сравнения показаны на картах цветом. На цветовой шкале дано соответствие цвета концентрации метана в ppbv — частях на миллиард по объёму. Серый цвет — отсутствие надёжных измерений. На картах приведены данные для ноября—декабря с 2010 по 2016 год. Цифрами на карте 2010 года обозначены: 1 — район сравнения; 2 — Шпицберген; 3 — Земля Франца-Иоси-фа; 4 — Новая Земля; 5 — Баренцево море; 6 — Карское море. РОСТ ВЫБРОСОВ МЕТАНА В АРКТИЧЕСКИХ ОБЛАСТЯХ

In the early 21st century the Arctic region saw the formation of the transnational networks. The agenda question is governance of the Arctic transnational networks. Taking into account the Arctic uniqueness, it should be regarded as a world experimental base to implement a new governance model – the transnational model: ‘nation-state – business – civil society’.  The goal of this model is to harmonize the interests of the world actors majority (both state and non-state) to resolve topical problems. The first part of this article is devoted to analysis of contemporary geopolitical conditions in early XXI century that propose the Arctic as a center of global interests. Then the author considers peculiarities of domestic and foreign Russian policies in the Arctic region. The third part of this article is focused on the Russian participation in formation and development of the transnational networks in the Arctic. In the conclusion the author tries to identify the priority directions of the Russian Arctic policy in the XXI century, taking into account the transnational Arctic networks.