Archaeological Site Formation Processes

Middle Paleolithic human occupation in the Levant (250e50 ka ago) has been recorded in roofed (cave and rockshelter) and open-air sites. Research at these different types of sites yielded different perspectives on the Middle Paleolithic human behavior and evolution. Until recently, open-air Middle Paleolithic sites in the Levant were found in three major sedimentary environments: fluvial, lake-margin and spring. Here we describe a unique depositional environment and formation processes at the recently discovered open-air site of Nesher Ramla (Israel) and discuss their contribution to understanding site formation processes in open-air sites in the Levant. The site is 8-m-thick Middle Paleolithic sequence (OSL dated to 170e80 ka) that is located in a karst sinkhole formed by gravitational deformation and sagging into underground voids. The sedimentary sequence was shaped by gravitational collapse, cyclic colluviation of soil and gravel into the depression, waterlogging, in situ pedogenesis and human occupation. Original bedding and combustion features are well-preserved in the Lower archaeological sequence, a rare occurrence in comparison to other open-air archaeological sites. This phenomenon coincides with episodes of fast sedimentation/burial, which also allowed better preservation of microscopic remains such as ash. The Upper archaeological sequence does not exhibit bedding or preservation of ash, despite presence of heat-affected lithic artifacts, which makes it similar to other open-air sites in the Levant. We suggest that rate of burial is the major factor that caused the difference between the Upper and Lower sequences. The differences in the burial rate may be connected to environmental and vegetation changes at the end of MIS 6. We also identified an interplay between sediment in-wash and density of human activity remains, i.e. during episodes of low natural sediment input the density of artifacts is higher relative to episodes with high rate of sediment in-wash. The detailed analysis of natural and anthropogenic processes at Nesher Ramla suggests a much wider spectrum of processes than previously reported for southern Levantine Paleolithic sites. Nesher Ramla shares certain depositional and post-depositional characteristics with both cave and open-air sites and provides a better insight into processes which control both types of sites.

The Boreal Forest is a vast region.  Therefore, the archaeological record like anywhere else in the globe is subject to revision as additional evidence is gathered.  By conducting research in the same location over a long period of time, Hyslop was able to alter the methodological approach that he utilised whilst surveying the shorelines of Lac Seul. His new approach revealed that cultural material existed well into the forested interior away from the water’s edge within the Lac Seul basin in central Canada. This development requires a detailed discussion of the nature of the Boreal Forest, the manner in which these discoveries were made, and the possible implications for the geographical region. It is important to recognise that this discussion is concerned with the surveying techniques utilised, not the excavation techniques.

The first encounter between archaeologists and the sites or areas of their study is the topsoil. Still, very little attention is paid to the processes that create the matrix of the topsoil and the archaeological assemblage contained within it, and hence to what data can be obtained from it. This paper, which is part of a larger study on the formation of the archaeological record at Tel 'Eton, aims to reconstruct the way the topsoil was formed. For this purpose, we studied not only the mound's topsoil and archaeological layers below it, but also the site's environment, in terms of texture (sedimentation/decantation method), color (Munsell charts), phosphate concentration (Olsen method) and vegetation (aboveground plant biomass). Results showed differentiation between the sampling groups and geographical settings in all the measured parameters-in both values and variance. The data imply that the mound's topsoil was created by an upward movement of materials and their homogenization in the topsoil. Our results strongly suggest that these processes are likely to be more frequent on mounds, compared to their uninhabited environment. Beyond new insights on the processes of archaeological soil formation, this study has implications for both chemical and archaeological phenomena, such as the presence of artifacts on the surface, the color of archaeological soils, the widespread use of archaeological sites for agriculture (from antiquity to the 20 th century), and the provenance of mud-brick material.

The Brian D. Jones Site (4-10B), in Avon, Connecticut, provides important information about subsistence, settlement patterns, and tool technology in the Early Paleoindian period in the American Northeast. Flaked lithic technology dominates the artifact assemblage, but large numbers of formal flaked tools and expedient tool forms, as well as charred botanicals and calcined bone fragments, were also recovered. Research is ongoing and is focused on understanding site-formation processes, raw-material procurement, tool production, and paleoenvironmental reconstruction to situate the site within its regional context.

As core concepts in contemporary archaeology, site formation processes (SFP) are indispensable in building strong inferences about the cultural past (Schiffer 1987). SFP are implicated at every level of archaeological inquiry, from designing research to interpreting variation in artifact form, assemblage composition, feature content,
space modification, and landscape evolution. Without question, understanding the origins and significance of variability is fundamental to determining the suitability of certain kinds of archaeological phenomena for particular research questions.

Most studies of maritime site formation processes have concentrated upon the various natural and to a lesser extent cultural processes physically impacting the remnants of the vessel (the shipwreck) and closely associated artifacts, while ignoring wider influences that have resulted in the current archaeological record. This chapter explores how cultural processes not only affect the transformation of a ship into a shipwreck site but also how continuing human interactions can produce other archaeological sites that are equally important for understanding the archaeology of shipwrecks. In addition, we consider how wider cultural practices, systems, and ideologies also warrant investigation when researching behavioral aspects of shipwreck site formation processes.

In this work we highlight the existence of a long lasting tradition of ditched enclosures in Southwestern Iberia during the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. Actually, in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula, countless ditched enclosures (recintos de fosos) were built.

Despite their abundance and the huge size of some of them -over 100 ha in certain cases-, references to Iberian recintos de fosos have been scarce, partial or inaccurate in international meetings and collective works on the matter. This state of affairs can be explained in part by the traditional tendency of both Portuguese and Spanish archaeologists to isolate themselves from the surrounding European academia. Methods and techniques that had been proved to be successful in other parts of Europe were not applied until recently; e.g. aerial photographs, geophysical surveys, extensive excavations, etc.

One of the ideas we defend is that Iberian recintos de fosos must be understood in an European context, especially Neolithic causewayed enclosures. It all contrasts with traditional approaches to the problem in Iberian Archaeology, but we think is very state-of-the-art when considered in a broader academic environment. We also found that formation processes of the archaeological record were a crucial aspect of the problem which had gone partly unnoticed.

The results of our research have been very fruitful, getting a lot of attention in Portuguese and Spanish academic circles lately.

"Riassunto:La campagna di indagini archeologiche, preliminare alla progettazione del grande intervento urbanistico del Sistema Direzionale Orientale nel settore Est della capitale, è scaturita dall'esigenza di orientare, per una volta preventivamente, la programmazione e quindi la progettazione urbanistica, coniugandola senza grossi traumi con le presenze del nostro passato. Il finanziamento concesso dalla Legge di Roma Capitale ha infatti consentito di applicare tutte le metodologie più opportune per supportare e indirizzare con le dovute conoscenze la programmazione urbanistica e allo stesso tempo ricostruire le problematiche storico-archeologiche del territorio.
Le indagini svolte sul campo dall'autunno del 1995 al 2000 hanno coinvolto un nutrito gruppo di studiosi e specialisti, e si sono concentrate soprattutto sul comparto più meridionale dello S.D.O., quello di Centocelle, dove nell'area già occupata dall'aeroporto militare “F. Baracca”, il primo aeroporto d'Italia, il Comune di Roma intende realizzare un grande parco, all'interno del quale i vari complessi archeologici individuati avranno un peso ed una valenza di fondamentale importanza.
Dopo quattro anni di lavoro sul campo ed altri tre di riordino, analisi ed interpretazione dei dati raccolti, è stata programmata l'edizione di tre volumi relativi al territorio di Centocelle e di Torre Spaccata. Questo primo volume contiene una serie di contributi di carattere generale, riguardanti il progetto, le metodologie utilizzate e i dati già disponibili prima delle indagini su tutta la fascia dell'antica via Labicana, dal primo al VI miglio. Seguono i risultati ottenuti dai vari tipi di indagini effettuate: prospezioni, carotaggi, ricognizioni e scavi per trincee o per aree di scavo, con infine le analisi e le riflessioni relative alle fasi più antiche di occupazione del pianoro di Centocelle, mentre nei seguenti volumi verranno trattati i contesti relativi ai periodi successivi e i risultati delle indagini a Torre Spaccata.
Il volume “Centocelle I” è su Google libri: http://books.google.it/books/about/Centocelle.html?hl=it&id=Mp25xJbN89wC
Abstract: The campaign of archaeological investigations in the East territory of Rome, preliminary to the planning of an important urban project, named "Sistema Direzionale Orientale", has been focused to direct, for once in advance, the planning and the urban design, respecting the evidences of our past. The field investigations, carried out from the autumn of 1995 to 2000, involved a large group of scientists and specialists, and focused mainly on the southern sector of the S.D.O., the district of Centocelle, where, in the area in force to the military airport "F. Baracca ", the first airport in Italy, the Municipality of Rome is now determined to create a large urban park, within which a variety of discovered archaeological sites will have a weight and a value of decisive importance.
After four years of field work and many others of analysis and interpretation of collected data, the edition of three volumes about the territory of Centocelle and Torre Spaccata was planned.
This first volume includes preliminary contributions about the project, the methodologies and the archaeological data already known before our investigations related with the ancient Via Labicana from the first mile to the sixth.
Here there are also the results produced by various kinds of investigations: exploration, drilling, surveys, trenches and excavation areas. Finally there are analysis and issues about the earliest phases of human activity on the Centocelle plateau.
In a second volume published in 2007 (Centocelle II) the latest ancient contexts are considered. Finally, the third volume of the series, published in 2008 (Torre Spaccata), presents the results of archaeological investigations in a wide area located to the South-East of the Centocelle plateau.
The volume “Centocelle I” is available on Google Books: http://books.google.it/books/about/Centocelle.html?hl=it&id=Mp25xJbN89wC"

Karstic caves in the Eastern Mediterranean region hold significant archaeological importance as they served as an important dwelling place for prehistoric hominins. Yet, such caves were used at the same time as a habitat for birds and bats. As a result, bat guano and bird droppings are not only a major source of cave deposits, but also trigger significant chemical alterations (diagenesis) due to their decomposition that can greatly affect the preservation of archaeological materials as reported from many Palaeolithic cave sites. While the diagenetic processes associated with bat guano degradation are quite well understood, the identification of partially-preserved or burnt guano residues in archaeological cave sites has not received much attention. Here we present a micromorphological, chemical and mineralogical study of modern guano of insectivorous bats, frugivorous bats and pigeons, collected from karstic caves in Israel. Each of these guano types was studied in fresh, charred and ashed forms. Based on the patterns obtained we present guidelines that allow identification of partially-degraded and burnt bat and bird guano remains. These include (1) high phosphorous and calcium associated with high quantities of chitin fragments in insectivorous bat guano; (2) low phosphorous and calcium associated with high quantities of seed coats, fibrous organic matter and red oval organic particles in frugivorous bat and pigeon guano. We found that faecal spherulites are present in bat guano and absent in pigeon droppings. Blackening and rounding of the edges of organic components characterise guano upon charring, while ashed guano is characterised by a micritic calcite groundmass in the case of fruit bat and pigeon guano without any pseudomorphs after calcium oxalate, unlike wood ash. We further show that ashed insectivorous bat guano is characterised by a micritic groundmass that includes phosphatic particles and potassium sulphate. These data indicate that while the combustion of guano presents similarities to other organic-based burnt deposits found in archaeological sites, a careful micromorphological study, aided by certain elemental and mineralogical signatures, can reveal whether or not burnt deposits originate from guano. Last, we studied the micromorphology of in situ degraded frugivorous and insectivorous bat guano in caves, observing that a bedded and laminated structure characterises fresh deposits while, as degradation progresses the proportion of authigenic minerals, appearing as nodules and veins, increases, disrupting the laminated structure. Importantly, chitin fragments in insectivorous bat guano and seed coats and some organic fibers in frugivorous bat guano preserve within degraded bat guano deposits and can serve as indicators for the presence and feeding habits of bats. Applying the guidelines given here to archaeological studies at prehistoric cave sites may produce new insights regarding human behavior, human–bat interactions, as well as for the formation processes at these sites.

Abstract – The following article serves as a summary of the present state of research on the mesolithic period in Germany based on the evaluation of 27 excavated sites and a total of 57 surveyed layers. Although not all published assemblages are included in the study, the results are still representative. The data were compiled by the authors within the framework of a seminar at the Institute of Prehistory at the University of Cologne. It forms the basis of a continuing project, “Edition Mesolithikum – Mesolithic Edition”, in which the fundamental knowledge of the mesolithic period is being collected and evaluated. A first analysis of the data presently available shows that the state of research in Germany is extremely heterogeneous. This can be partially explained by varying preservation conditions. The main problem
however lies in the fact that the mesolithic period is not investigated to the same extent in all regions, and much material remains unpublished. Only a small number of mesolithic sites have been investigated in the Central Upland Zone (Mittelgebirge) of Germany, and no excavations have as yet been conducted in the German Alps. The absolute dating of mesolithic settlement sites is, with only very few exceptions, totally insufficient. This also applies to botanical and faunal studies. Even the results from the analyses of silex assemblages, which comprise the core of the finds from mesolithic sites, are often incomplete in the publications. The results of the evaluation presented here show, however, the enormous potential of mesolithic sites for prehistory. A fact that has, as yet, not been recognized by all researchers.

Keywords – Mesolithic, history of research, chronology, 14C-dates, features, stone artifacts, archeaobotanical and archaeozoological studies

Zusammenfassung – Der vorliegende Beitrag ist eine zusammenfassende Darstellung des derzeitigen Standes der Mittelsteinzeitforschung in Deutschland, der auf 27 ausgegrabenen Fundstellen mit insgesamt 57 Begehungen bzw. Besiedlungsschichten beruht.
Obwohl noch nicht alle publitzierten Plätze in diese Untersuchung eingingen, sind die Ergebnisse repäsentativ. Die Daten für diese
Zusammenstellungen wurden von den AutorInnen in einer Übung an der Universität zu Köln erhoben und bilden die Grundlage für das weiterführende Projekt “Edition Mesolithikum”, in dem grundlegendes Wissen zur Mittelsteinzeit gesammelt werden wird. Eine erste Analyse der bisherigen Daten ergab einen sehr heterogenen Forschungsstand, der nur zu einem geringen Teil mit unterschiedlichen Erhaltunsgbedingungen erklärt werden kann. Meist sind Forschungslücken oder der unzureichende Publikationsstand dafür verantwortlich. So liegen bisher aus dem Deutschen Mittelgebirgsraum nur wenige und aus den Deutschen Alpen gar keine ausgegrabenen Fundstellen vor. Die absolute Datierung der Siedlungsplätze ist von wenigen Ausnahmen abgesehen, nur als unzureichend zu bezeichnen. Dasselbe gilt für die Untersuchung botanischer und faunistischer Reste. Selbst für die Analyse von Silexinventaren, die die hauptsächlich vertretenen Fundobjekte darstellen, sind oft aus den Publikationen nicht alle relevanten Angaben zu erhalten. Die hier vorgestellten Auswertungsergebnisse zeigen jedoch das enorme Potential mesolithischer Siedlungsplätze für die Urgeschichte, das anscheinend von vielen Forschenden noch nicht erkannt wurde.

Schlüsselwörter – Mesolithikum, Forschungsgeschichte, Chronologie, 14C-Daten, Befunde, Silexartefakte, archäobotanische und archäozoologische Untersuchungen