A Priori Knowledge

Oxygenation measurements are widely used in patient care. However, most clinically available instruments currently consist of contact probes that only provide global monitoring of the patient (e.g., pulse oximetry probes) or local monitoring of small areas (e.g., spectroscopy-based probes). Visualization of oxygenation over large areas of tissue, without a priori knowledge of the location of defects, has the potential to improve patient management in many surgical and critical care applications. In this study, we present a clinically compatible multispectral spatial frequency domain imaging (SFDI) system optimized for surgical oxygenation imaging. This system was used to image tissue oxygenation over a large area (16×12 cm) and was validated during preclinical studies by comparing results obtained with an FDA-approved clinical oxygenation probe. Skin flap, bowel, and liver vascular occlusion experiments were performed on Yorkshire pigs and demonstrated that over the course of the experiment, relative changes in oxygen saturation measured using SFDI had an accuracy within 10% of those made using the FDA-approved device. Finally, the new SFDI system was translated to the clinic in a first-in-human pilot study that imaged skin flap oxygenation during reconstructive breast surgery. Overall, this study lays the foundation for clinical translation of endogenous contrast imaging using SFDI.

This article surveys deformable models, a promising and vigorously researched computer-assisted medical image analysis technique. Among model-based techniques, deformable models offer a unique and powerful approach to image analysis that combines geometry, physics, and approximation theory. They have proven to be effective in segmenting, matching, and tracking anatomic structures by exploiting (bottom-up) constraints derived from the image data together with (top-down) a priori knowledge about ...

En este artículo expongo cómo la filosofía trascendental
kantiana utiliza la figura de las analogías de la experiencia como una
forma de interpretación normativa y pragmática de las condiciones a
priori del conocimiento. Dichas condiciones, no sólo se manifiestan en
la constitución de nuestros juicios sintéticos acerca de los fenómenos
empíricos; sino que también posibilitan la construcción de las ciencias
naturales mismas, como la Física. Al final de esta exposición señalo
que esta interpretación normativa y pragmática es esencial para la
filosofía trascendental en tanto, que sólo así, es posible la
fundamentación metafísica de las leyes newtonianas.

The present paper deals with the ontological status of numbers and considers Frege´s proposal in Grundlagen upon the background of the Post-Kantian semantic turn in analytical philosophy. Through a more systematic study of his philosophical premises, it comes to unearth a first level paradox that would unset earlier still than it was exposed by Russell. It then studies an alternative path that, departing from Frege's initial premises, drives to a conception of numbers as synthetic a priori in a more Kantian sense. On this basis, it tentatively explores a possible derivation of basic logical rules on their behalf, suggesting a more rudimentary basis to inferential thinking, which supports reconsidering the difference between logical thinking and AI. Finally, it reflects upon the contributions of this approach to the problem of the a priori.

Although the statistical tools most often used by researchers in the field of psychology over the last 25 years are based on frequentist statistics, it is often claimed that the alternative Bayesian approach to statistics is gaining in popularity. In the current article, we investigated this claim by performing the very first systematic review of Bayesian psychological articles published between 1990 and 2015 (n ϭ 1,579). We aim to provide a thorough presentation of the role Bayesian statistics plays in psychology. This historical assessment allows us to identify trends and see how Bayesian methods have been integrated into psychological research in the context of different statistical frameworks (e.g., hypothesis testing, cognitive models, IRT, SEM, etc.). We also describe take-home messages and provide "big-picture" recommendations to the field as Bayesian statistics becomes more popular. Our review indicated that Bayesian statistics is used in a variety of contexts across subfields of psychology and related disciplines. There are many different reasons why one might choose to use Bayes (e.g., the use of priors, estimating otherwise intractable models, modeling uncertainty, etc.). We found in this review that the use of Bayes has increased and broadened in the sense that this methodology can be used in a flexible manner to tackle many different forms of questions. We hope this presentation opens the door for a larger discussion regarding the current state of Bayesian statistics, as well as future trends. Translational Abstract Over 250 years ago, Bayes (or Price, or Laplace) introduced a method to take prior knowledge into account in data analysis. Although these ideas and Bayes's theorem have been longstanding within the fields of mathematics and statistics, these tools have not been at the forefront of modern-day applied psychological research. It was frequentist statistics (i.e., p values and null hypothesis testing; developed by Fisher, Neyman, and Pearson long after Bayes's theorem), which has dominated the field of Psychology throughout the 21st century. However, it is often claimed by 'Bayesians' that the alternative Bayesian approach to statistics is gaining in popularity. In the current article, we investigated this claim by performing the very first systematic review of Bayesian psychological articles published between 1990 and 2015 (n ϭ 1,579). Our findings showed that there was some merit in this thought. In fact, the use of Bayesian methods in applied Psychological work has steadily increased since the nineties and is currently taking flight. It was clear in this review that Bayesian statistics is used in a variety of contexts across subfields of Psychology and related disciplines. This is an exciting time, where we can watch the field of applied statistics change more than ever before. The way in which researchers think about and answer substantive inquiries is slowly taking on a new philosophical meaning that now incorporates previous knowledge and opinions into the estimation process. We hope this presentation opens the door for a larger discussion regarding the current state of Bayesian statistics, as well as future trends.

Household smart meters that measure power consumption in real-time at fine granularities are the foundation of a future smart electricity grid. However, the widespread deployment of smart meters has serious privacy implications since they inadvertently leak detailed information about household activities. In this paper, we show that even without a priori knowledge of household activities or prior training, it is possible to extract complex usage patterns from smart meter data using off-the-shelf statistical methods. Our analysis ...

C. I. Lewis’s distinction between the given and the concept is often exposed as the key element of his treatment of the problem of intentionality in that the given and the concept would be necessary and sufficient conditions for objective purport. Such an account nonetheless offers a truncated picture of Lewis’s treatment of the problem of intentionality. The best way to appreciate this verdict is to state the predicament this account is confronted with: If the distinction between the given and the concept apparently leads to a version of the same problem it was designed to address, how could it be the key element contributing to answering the problem of intentionality? Indeed, according to Lewis, the given and the concept are mutually independent so that prima facie nothing guarantees that concepts are applicable to the given. The difficulty is what Lewis calls “the problem of the a priori”: how to guarantee that our concepts can be imposed upon a content of experience which is independent and not yet given? This is a version of the problem that Kant’s Transcendental Deduction addresses: How can categories, as subjective conditions of experience, be objectively valid? A natural question is then: How does Lewis address the problem of the a priori? The main purpose of this essay is then to investigate how C. I. Lewis’s addresses the problem of the a priori and to contribute to restoring an appropriate understanding of Lewis’s conceptual pragmatism.
http://journals.openedition.org/ejpap/2573

El propósito del análisis a priori es determinar si las restricciones consideradas sobre el sistema didáctico y la elección de las variables, permiten controlar los comportamientos de los estudiantes y los significados construidos. 
Este análisis se basa en un conjunto de hipótesis sobre lo que harán los estudiantes, es decir, contemplar todo lo que pueda suceder al llevarla a la practica.

A Epistemologia, ou Teoria do Conhecimento, é o ramo da Filosofia que se preocupa em investigar não só o que é o conhecimento, mas como temos acesso a ele, ou seja, como se dá essa relação entre o sujeito cognitivo e o objeto do conhecimento. Neste ensaio defenderei a possibilidade de um tipo particular de conhecimento proposicional: o conhecimento a priori.

Optimization of the performance of a closed-loop, milling depth control system for a peat milling machine was undertaken. The system was optimized using a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller, set at a proportional gain of 50, and derivative and integral times of 0·5 and 0·89 s, respectively, giving a bandwidth of 66 rad s−1with a response similar to a first-order system. The

Neste trabalho, temos a missão de falar sobre uma questão epistemológica
considerada central por Kant: Como são possíveis os juízos sintéticos a priori?
(KANT, 2001, p. 49) Em virtude do caráter introdutório do nosso estudo sobre a
Crítica da razão pura1, vamos primeiro nos limitar à exposição de como o filósofo
formulou o problema na carta2 que escreveu a Marcus Herz, em 1772, portanto, antes
de publicar a Crítica em 17813. Em seguida, e de forma breve, tentaremos reconstruir
parte do quadro conceitual e argumentativo utilizado por Kant na reformulação da
questão central na Introdução da Crítica.

Philosophical analysis was the central preoccupation of 20th-century analytic philosophy. In the contemporary methodological debate, however, it faces a number of pressing external and internal challenges. While external challenges, like those from experimental philosophy or semantic externalism, have been extensively discussed, internal challenges to philosophical analysis have received much less attention. One especially vexing internal challenge is that the success conditions of philosophical analysis are deeply unclear. According to the standard textbook view, a philosophical analysis aims at a strict biconditional that captures the necessary and sufficient conditions for membership in the relevant category. The textbook view arguably identifies a necessary condition on successful philosophical analyses, but understood as a sufficient condition it is untenable, as I will argue in this paper. To this end, I first uncover eight conditions of adequacy on successful philosophical analyses, some of which have rarely been spelled out in detail. As we shall see, even sophisticated alternatives to the textbook view fail to accommodate some of these conditions. I then propose the concept grounding view as a more promising account of philosophical analysis. According to this view, successful philosophical analyses require necessary biconditionals that are constrained by grounding relations among the concepts involved. Apart from providing a satisfactory account of philosophical analysis in its own right, the concept grounding view is also able to meet the challenge that the success conditions of philosophical analysis are problematically unclear.

Questions that pertain to “knowledge” remain foremost in the minds of philosophers. Modern approaches attempt to provide stepping-stones that help to promote a better understanding but because of the nature and import of the item the propositions are at best inconclusive

Uzay’ın ontolojik analizi yüzyıllar boyunca filozofların başlıca konularından biri olmuştur. 17.yüzyıla gelindiğinde ise orta çağın son bulması ve bilimsel devrimin yaşanması ile beraber filozoflar da tıpkı bilim insanları gibi uzayı yalnızca metafizikle değil, matematikle de harmanlanmış bir şekilde açıklamayı uygun bulmuştur. Bu çalışmanın amacı da Leibniz ve Newton arasındaki Uzay’ın ontolojik statüsü tartışmasını açıklayarak, Kant’ın bu tartışma içerisindeki konumunu belirlemek ve alternatif uzay konseptini onun kavramsal çerçevesi içerisinde sunmaktır.