Media coverage of the “refugee crisis”: A cross-European perspective

Report: M edia coverage of the “refugee crisis”: A cross-European perspective Dr M yria Georgiou Dr Rafal Zaborow ski Department of M edia and Communications London School of Economics and Political Science 1 Executive Summary 1. European press played a cent ral role in framing refugees’ and migrant s’ arrival t o European shores in 2015 as a crisis for Europe. While coverage of “ t he crisis” is charact erised by significant diversit y, overall, new arrivals w ere seen as out siders and different t o Europeans: eit her as vulnerable out siders or as dangerous out siders. 2. Regional t rends: There are significant differences in t he coverage across European regions. Especially at t he beginning of “ t he crisis” , and t o an ext ent t hroughout it , t here w as a st ark cont rast bet w een media coverage on t he West and t he East and especially, bet w een media in t he receiving and non-receiving count ries. 3. Temporal t rends: t he narrat ives of t he coverage changed across Europe during 2015. The sympat het ic and empat het ic response of a large proport ion of t he European press in t he summer and especially early aut umn of 2015 w as gradually replaced by suspicion and, in some cases, host ilit y t ow ards refugees and migrant s. 4. M edia t rends: Press coverage t hat promot ed hat e speech and host ilit y t ow ards migrant s and refugees w as syst emat ic and persist ent in a proport ion of t he press. This w as especially t he case in some part s of East ern Europe (esp. Hungary), t hroughout “ t he crisis” and in a significant sect ion of some count ries’ right -leaning press in t he East and West Europe alike. 5. Voice: Refugees and migrant s w ere given limit ed opport unit ies t o speak direct ly of t heir experiences and suffering. M ost oft en t hey w ere spoken about and represent ed in images as silent act ors and vict ims. There w ere some significant except ions, but t hese w ere t ime and place specific. 6. Gender: Female refugees’ and migrant s’ voices w ere hardly ever heard. In some count ries, t hey w ere never given t he opport unit y t o speak (e.g. Hungary) w hile in ot her cases (e.g. Germany) t hey w ere only occasionally given t his opport unit y. 7. Cont ext : Overall, media paid lit t le and scat t ered at t ent ion t o t he cont ext of refugee and migrant plight . There w as lit t le connect ion bet w een st ories on new arrivals and w ar report ing or bet w een st ories on refugee plight and int ernat ional new s st ories from t heir count ries of origins. In addit ion, lit t le and scat t ered informat ion w as made available t o t he public about migrant s’ and refugees’ individual st ories, t heir lives and cult ures; t hus informat ion about w ho t hese people act ually are w as absent or marginal in much of t he press coverage in most European count ries. 8. As t he “ refugee/ migrat ion crisis” is ent ering a new phase, media cont inue t o face significant challenges in safeguarding t he values of independent and fair journalism, w hile respect ing freedom of expression for all and t ackling hat e speech in Europe. Self-regulat ory and int ernat ional bodies and organisat ions need t o support media in t hese effort s. 2 Introduction While Europe has long been a dest inat ion for migrant s and refugees, 2015 saw a sharp rise in t he numbers of refugees and migrant s arriving at Europe’s shores. Approximat ely one million people, fleeing w ar and povert y arrived in Europe in 2015 (Front ex 2015), w it h a significant proport ion fleeing w ar-t orn Syria. This w as t he year t hat journalist s recorded t he biggest movement of people across boundaries (Et hical Journalism Net w ork 2015), w hich t hey responded t o t hrough many st ories t hat appeared on a daily basis in Europe’s media. The event s, w hich w ere soon t o be referred t o w idely as Europe’s “ refugee crisis” or Europe’s “ migrat ion crisis” , called for at t ent ion and act ion from government s, polit icians and European publics. In t his report , w e refer t o t he significant numbers of people arriving t o Europe from conflict -t orn areas in 2015-16 as t he “ refugee/ migrat ion crisis” . We use t he t w o concept s t oget her, as t hey have become w idely and int erchangeably adopt ed by t he media and policy makers t o refer t o t he recent arrivals of almost a million people in Europe. At t he same t ime, w e remain aw are t hat t he conflat ion of t erms (“ migrant ” and “ refugee” ) carries profound and dangerous consequences for t he qualit y of press coverage. Throughout t he event s of 2015-16, t he media played a cent ral role in providing informat ion about t he new arrivals and in framing t hese event s as a “ crisis” . While social media have also played a significant role in exchanging informat ion across Europe and beyond (including among refugees t hemselves and as a link t o t he count ries of origin), mainst ream media’s informat ional role remains paramount . M ainst ream media st ill const it ut e key and t rust ed resources for officials and publics t o make sense and t ake act ion in t he course of event s. In addit ion, w hile media are alw ays import ant in framing event s, in t his case, t heir role has arguably been even more crucial t han usual for t w o reasons: (i.) t he scale and speed of event s in t he second half of 2015 meant t hat publics and policy makers depended on mediat ed informat ion t o make sense of development s on t he ground; (ii.) t he lack of familiarit y w it h t he new arrivals, t heir hist ories and t he reasons for t heir plight meant t hat many Europeans depended exclusively on t he media t o underst and w hat w as happening. Thus, t he need t o analyse media coverage of “ t he refugee/ migrat ion crisis” is crit ical t o underst anding: (i.) narrat ives of “ t he crisis” ; (ii.) geographical t rends; (iii.) challenges t o policy making, especially in relat ion t o hat e speech and freedom of expression. This report represent s an ent ry-point t o European media coverage of t he “ crisis” , especially as t his w as formed during t he peak of t he event s, in 2015 (Summer – Wint er 2015). The report offers a cross-European perspect ive and insight . It primarily draw s from t he analysis of European influent ial press in eight M ember St at es of t he Council of Europe (CoE), and also from Europe’s major Arabic language new spapers. The report is organised in t hree main sect ions: (i.) The policy and media cont ext of t he media coverage; (ii.) The key element s of press coverage across Europe in eight count ries (Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Serbia and t he Unit ed Kingdom); (iii.) Challenges of media pract ices and recommendat ions. 3 SECTION I: Context of media coverage of the “refugee crisis” This sect ion examines in brief t he cont ext , especially in regards t o policy, in w hich t he discussion on t he media coverage of refugees and migrant s t akes place. While t he event s of 2015 w ere unprecedent ed in scale, t he challenges of fairly report ing new s on migrant s and refugees in t he cont ext of freedom of expression, fairness and et hical journalism are not new . Academic lit erat ure on media represent at ions, especially concerning et hnic minorit ies, migrant s and refugees, has repeat edly highlight ed t he import ance of media coverage of different groups for t he w ays w e underst and right s and ident it ies. As Cot t le argues: The media occupy a key sit e and perform a crucial role in t he public represent at ion of unequal social relat ions and t he play of cult ural pow er. It is in and t hrough represent at ions, for example, t hat members of t he media audience are variously invit ed t o const ruct a sense of w ho “ w e” are in relat ion t o w ho “ w e” are not (Cot t le, 2000: 2). Academic lit erat ure has also highlight ed issues of concern regarding t he st ereot yping of migrant s, refugees and ot her minorit ies in cert ain media, w hich may result in prejudice and discriminat ory at t it udes against individual represent at ives of such groups and t he reject ion of cult ural diversit y alt oget her (cf. Firmst one et al. 2007; Ferjani 2007; Siapera 2010). Policy makers and self-regulat ory media bodies have raised similar concerns. A case w hich at t ract ed significant public and t ransnat ional polit ical and media at t ent ion w as t hat of t he Leveson Inquiry (2012), w hich follow ed t he phone hacking scandal in t he UK. Lord Leveson not ed in his report t hat : “ some new spapers expressed a consist ent ly clear view on t he harm caused by migrant s and/ or asylum seekers (oft en conflat ing t he t w o) and ensured t hat any coverage of t he issue fit s w it hin t hat narrat ive” . Freedom of expression, especially as prot ect ed by Art icle 10 of t he European Convent ion of Human Right s, is complement ed by Art icle 4 of t he Int ernat ional Convent ion on t he Eliminat ion of All Forms of Racial Discriminat ion and Art icle 20 of t he Int ernat ional Covenant on Civil and Polit ical Right s. These Art icles recognise t he equal right s of freedom of expression, free speech and part icipat ion for all groups and individuals in a societ y, including minorit ies. The European Commission against Racism and Int olerance (ECRI), t hrough it s monit oring, has developed count ry-specific recommendat ions addressing sit uat ions w here represent at ives of minorit y groups, including refugees and migrant s, may be hindered in t heir access t o equal right s because of discriminat ory at t it udes against t hem, w hich are oft en fuelled by negat ive narrat ives in t he public debat e. Effect ively confront ing hat e speech is t herefore a challenge t hat is gaining new urgency, especially as w e are w it nessing a st eady rise in language promot ing discriminat ion (and in some cases even encouraging hat red and violence against refugees and migrant s) across a sect ion of Europe’s mainst ream and social media. Some of t he difficult ies in t ackling hat e speech relat e t o t he fact t hat hat e speech has no int ernat ionally accept ed, singular definit ion. How ever, int ernat ional, regional and nat ional 4 init iat ives and media self-regulat ory bodies have developed a number of recommendat ions for members of t he CoE regarding hat e speech. In part icular, t he count ry-by-count ry monit oring by t he European Commission against Racism and Int olerance (ECRI) proposes a set of cross-European and count ry-specific recommendat ions t hat t ackle hat e speech in it s complexit y. As not ed by ECRI: Hat e speech….ent ails t he use of one or more part icular forms of expression – namely, t he advocacy, promot ion or incit ement of t he denigrat ion, hat red or vilificat ion of a person or group of persons, as w ell as any harassment , insult , negat ive st ereot yping, st igmat izat ion or t hreat of such person or persons and any just ificat ion of all t hese forms of expression – t hat is based on a non-exhaust ive list of personal charact erist ics or st at us t hat includes “ race” , colour, language, religion or belief, nat ionalit y or nat ional or et hnic origin, as w ell as descent , age, disabilit y, sex, gender, gender ident it y and sexual orient at ion (ECRI 2015: 16). How much has journalist ic pract ice in t he coverage of t he “ refugee/ migrat ion crisis” been sensit ive t ow ards t hese forms of discriminat ion? How much do t he language and frames adopt ed in t he media coverage of t he “ refugee/ migrant crisis” reaffirm divides on t he basis of origin, nat ionalit y and belief – and how much do t hey promot e underst anding? How do media frame European responsibilit y or vulnerabilit y t ow ards new comers how fairly do t hey represent t he different voices of t he involved act ors? UNHCR addressed t hese quest ions t hrough it s ow n guidelines for covering refugees and asylum seekers in a report st emming from collaborat ion w it h t he Nat ional Union of Journalist s in t he UK and t he Irish Refugee Council (UNHCR 2016). The report provides pract ical guidelines for int erview ing refugees and asylum seekers and a glossary w it h appropriat e t erminology for fair report ing. In t his report and t he next sect ion, t hese quest ions are direct ly t ackled t hrough t he evidence produced in a cross-European st udy of press coverage of t he “ refugee/ migrat ion crisis” . SECTION II. M edia coverage across Europe 1. M edia coverage across Europe This report draw s from a syst emat ic year-long research project locat ed at t he Depart ment of M edia and Communicat ions, London School of Economics and Polit ical Science.1 The project is const it ut ed by a cont ent analysis of qualit y press in eight European count ries – Czech Republic; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Ireland; Serbia; UK) as w ell as of t he t w o main 1 The aut hors w ould like t o t hank our colleagues w orking on t he project , Professor Lilie Chouliaraki and Dr Ellen Helsper. We are also grat eful t o our coders w it hout w hom t he project w ould not be possible: Zuzana Brezinová, Leah Selig Chauhan, Ant onios Dimit riadis, Joelle Eid, Lisa Elkhoury, Poliana Geha, Shreya Goenka, Róbert Hegedűs, Gyorgyi Horvat h, Rosanna Hut chings, Let icia Ishibashi-Poppenw immer , Göt z Kadow , Kaylah Kleczka, Krist ina Kolbe, Afrodit i Koulaxi, Jan Krot ký, Ana Lomt adze, Rit a Nemet h, Sadichchha Pokharel, Corinne Schw eizer, Karim Shukr, Ema St ast na, Tijana St olic, Sanja Vico, Pauline Vidal, Felicit y Ward. 5 Arabic language European new spapers – Al-Hayat and Al-Araby Al-Jadeed. The concept ual design of t he project (developed by Professor Lilie Chouliaraki and Dr M yria Georgiou) aimed t o invest igat e t he range of narrat ives t hat predominat e t he coverage of t he refugee/ migrant crisis. The hypot hesis driving t he analysis is t hat narrat ives of t he coverage are cont ained w it hin an axis t hat has milit arizat ion (cont rol of borders and securit y of Europe or t he nat ion) on one ext reme and humanit arianism (compassion and care of new arrivals) on t he ot her. While t hese are t he t w o ext remes of t he analyt ical frame, ot her narrat ives exist inbet w een and alongside t hose (e.g. a careful mix of defensive and humanit arian measures present in press narrat ives in a few count ries in t he st udy). The key quest ions t he project asked are: - What are t he media narrat ives of t he “ refugee/ migrant crisis” ? Who speaks and w ho is spoken for? What are t he specific frames of posit ive and negat ive act ions relat ing t o t he management of “ t he crisis” ? How do all t hese findings differ across European regions and count ries as w ell as across t hree dist inct t ime periods in 2015? The st udy examined press coverage of t he crisis in t he days immediat ely aft er t hree set s of key event s (20 art icles per new spaper in a period, 1200 art icles analysed in t ot al), associat ed w it h t he crisis. The event s on focus are: (i.) Hungary beginning t o build a barrier along it s border w it h Serbia; (ii.) t he publicat ion of Alan Kurdi’s images; (iii.) t he November 2015 Paris t errorist at t acks. The decision t o focus on qualit y press w as based on t he significance t hat t his sect ion of t he media plays in public affairs: qualit y press set s agendas and it is read by “ t he influent ial” – i.e. polit icians and policy makers. Thus, w hile it s impact expands beyond it s direct numerical readership and spills int o policy making, it also influences t he public cult ure of w hat is and w hat is not accept able and legit imat e t o say and do. In addit ion, w e looked at one right leaning and one-left leaning new spaper in each count ry in order t o capt ure t he main ideological frames of t he coverage and record t he range of opinions and values t hat framed t he response of t he media t o “ t he crisis” . 2. Europe in 2015 Overall, w e see t he t hree periods analysed in t he st udy as import ant point s on a European mediat ed narrat ive of t he crisis. Separat ed roughly by t w o-mont h int ervals, t hey serve t o capt ure t he dynamically changing frames surrounding t he dramat ic sit uat ion. As seen in t he short descript ion below , t he periods should be seen in t he cont ext of preceding and succeeding development s t o fully underst and t heir significance. Period 1 (July): Careful tolerance 6 By July 2015, Europe experienced t hree mont hs of t he current “ refugee crisis” 2 in t he media, st art ing from report s about mass drow nings in t he M edit erranean in April and M ay (adding t o previous, but less mediat ed report s about similar t ragedies bet w een January and M arch 2015). In July, t he European Council agreed on measures concerning relocat ing refugees from Greece and It aly t o ot her EU M ember St at es in June, w hile migrant s in Calais desperat ely t ried t o get on t rucks heading t o t he Unit ed Kingdom t horough t he Channel Tunnel. Finally, on July 13t h t he Hungarian government announced it s decision t o st art building a physical barrier along it s Serbian border. July w as a dynamic period in t he crisis, w it h st ories about humanit arian effort s on t he M edit erranean int erw eaving w it h anxiet ies fuelled by st ories of migrant violence. The balance bet w een securit isat ion and humanit arianism is represent at ive of t he w hole st udy: Europe appeared t o w ant t o help refugees more t han not , but remained careful about negat ive consequences. Period 2 (September): Ecstatic humanitarianism Aft er phot ographs of t he body of t hree-year old Alan Kurdi made headlines in t he European press, media narrat ives changed significant ly. Descript ions of measures t o help refugees significant ly dominat ed over measures t o prot ect t he count ry. Refugee emot ions w ere most frequent ly feat ured in t he narrat ives, compared t o t he ot her t w o periods, and t here w ere significant ly more ment ions of posit ive consequences of t he migrant arrivals t han in July or November. For a w hile at least , Europe appeared from t he narrat ive as a place of (relat ive) solidarit y t o t he plight of asylum seekers. Period 3 (November): Fear and securitisation Everyt hing changed drast ically aft er t he November Paris at t acks. In art icles concerning refugees, defensive measures dominat ed over helping measure for t he first t ime as a general t rend. Negat ive geopolit ical consequences of t he migrant crisis appeared in almost half of t he press art icles of t he period w hile t he refugees w ere t he most voiceless compared t o July and Sept ember. Europe w as deep in shock – and t he refugees appeared t o be t o blame. 3. Detailed analysis of emerging trends A. Refugees and consequences for Europe In our analysis, w e have been at t ent ive t o how European press frames narrat ives of consequences of migrant s’ arrivals. We divided t hese int o, broadly, posit ive and negat ive consequences, and each cat egory had four furt her dist inct ions relat ing t o t he t ype of consequences envisioned: economic, geopolit ical, cult ural or moral. These w ere not exclusive, and it w as possible for a new spaper st ory t o cont ain a few or, indeed, none of t hese frames. Overall, across all analysed count ries, negat ive consequences of refugee arrivals w ere st rongly emphasised in new spaper st ories, as t w o-t hirds (66% t o be precise) of all st ories in 2 This is not t o say t hat t he crisis st art ed t hen (as it is a result of mult iple fact ors and happenings dat ing back significant ly furt her t han t hat ), but rat her t o suggest t hat t his period is t he st art of w hat has been w idely mediat ed as t he European refugee crisis in 2015. 7 t he sample ment ioned t hese. To add t o t hat , 59% of all art icles ment ioned no posit ive consequences (real or project ed) of refugees arriving in Europe. First , t he fact t hat most journalist ic st ories about refugees ment ion consequences for European societ ies, especially in t he early periods of t he crisis w hen lit t le empirical, causal relat ionship could be est ablished bet w een t he plight of migrant s and t he w ellbeing of European count ries, is t elling about t he overall narrat ive const ruct ed by t he European press: t he narrat ive of anxiet y about unw ant ed consequences. Second, our analysis of specific t ypes of consequences bet w een posit ive and negat ive frames in t he art icles show s considerable differences. Negat ive consequences art iculat ed in t he press rarely emphasized a moral rat ionale and w ere most ly geopolit ical, economic or cult ural in nat ure. On t he ot her hand, w hen posit ive consequences w ere ment ioned, t hey w ere framed predominant ly as a moral imperat ive of empat hy or even solidarit y. The emerging narrat ive, t hen, st rongly links negat ive consequences t o “ real” , t angible development s in European count ries, w hile very few posit ive aspect s beyond a moral frame are out lined. Third, specific t ypes of negat ive consequences show fluct uat ions in press narrat ives bet w een t he analysed periods. While economic and cult ural consequences w ere most prominent in t he narrat ive in Period 1, t hey t hen experienced a st eady drop in frequency in Periods 2 and 3. References t o geopolit ical consequences, on t he ot her hand, spiked in frequency in Period 3. This signifies t he move of European press t ow ard discourses of securit isat ion aft er t he Paris at t acks: refugees are framed t hrough t he geopolit ical dangers t hey bring w it h t hem. B. M ilitarisation dominant after November Our main classificat ion of act ions st at ed, suggest ed or declared w it h regards t o t he refugee crisis in t he press art icles dist inguished bet w een measures t o help t he refugees (t hese included act ions such as providing shelt er, donat ing money or ot her t hings, opening borders, help w it h regist rat ion, lobbying for polit ical solut ion et c.) and measures t o prot ect t he count ry and/ or Europe (w hich included, among ot her measures, sending refugees or migrant s back, closing borders, building physical obst acles bet w een count ries, upping police or guard presence). In our framew ork, w e broadly concept ualised t he first group of act ions as humanit arian and t he second group as milit arist ic. The proport ion of humanit arian and milit arisat ion frames changed across t he t hree periods. While in Period 1 and especially so in Period 2 t he majorit y of art icles w ere sympat het ic t o t he refugee plight and emphasized act ions t o assist asylum seekers in a variet y of w ays, in Period 3 t his t rend w as reversed and over 60% of t he act ions ment ioned w ere put in a defensive, milit arist ic frame. This is consist ent w it h our findings about geopolit ical dangers in Period 3 ment ioned in t he previous sect ion. We analysed t hese findings furt her, w it h at t ent ion t o each count ry in t he st udy. Cert ainly, a deeper cont ext ual analysis of hist orical, polit ical and socioeconomic t rends in each of t he regions needs t o be considered in order t o fully underst and press narrat ives surrounding t he refugee crisis in each count ry. While w e cannot achieve t his here because of space limit at ions of t he report , w e w ill out line significant t rends emerging from t he st udy. 8 In part icular, geographical locat ion of count ries correlat ed st rongly w it h t ypes of narrat ives in t he domest ic press. In part icular, w e found t hat t he press in “ West ern” count ries in t he st udy (t o w hich w e include t he Unit ed Kingdom, France, Germany, Czech Republic) w as charact erised by a high percent age of narrat ives of milit ary securit isat ion voiced in t he art icles and more oft en t han not ment ioned measures t o prot ect Europe/ t he count ry. On t he ot her hand, t he press in “ East ern” count ries in t he sample (t o w hich w e include Greece and Serbia) focused more on act ions t o help t he refugees. In ot her w ords, in our st at ist ical models based on t he count ries’ proximit y t o t he arriving refugees, being a ‘front line’ count ry predict ed significant ly low er milit arisat ion vs humanit arian scores. C. Voice or voicelessness? Refugees in the press Anot her finding emerging from t he st udy concerns t he port rayal of t he refugees t hemselves. Unsurprisingly perhaps, w e found t hat alt hough much w as said for and about t he refugees in t he European press, t heir descript ions w ere highly limit ed in scope. M ost not ably, refugees w ere predominant ly described in t he press as nat ionals of a cert ain count ry (62% of art icles in t he sample). Only 35% of art icles dist inguished bet w een men and w omen among t he refugees and less t han a t hird of art icles referred t o t he refugees as people of a specific age group. St rikingly, only 16% of art icles included t he names of refugees and as lit t le as 7% included t heir professions. Refugees t hus emerge from t hese narrat ives as an anonymous, unskilled group. They are ‘t he ot her’ t o t he presumed reader of t he press and t his limit ed charact erisat ion shapes t he discourse surrounding t he refugee crisis for bot h European audiences and st akeholders. In t he mediat ed narrat ive, w it hout individual charact erist ics, refugees are implied t o be of lit t le use for European count ries (as t hey seem t o have no profession), inspiring lit t le empat hy (because t hey are dehumanised and de-individualised) and raising suspicion (because no gender dist inct ion aids t he narrat ive of refugees being “ most ly young men chancing t heir luck” 3). Descript ions aside, our st udy also looked at w ho among people ment ioned in t he art icles is allow ed t o speak and w ho is not . This is part icularly relevant , because t hrough giving a voice t o individuals and groups, part icular narrat ives are being legit imised. In t he st udy, t he opinions of refugees w ere rarely represent ed. Refugee voices remained in minorit y across t he sample compared t o t hose w ho w ere allow ed t o speak. In all analysed count ries, voices of represent at ives of nat ional government s, government s of ot her count ries or European polit icians w ere feat ured in art icles significant ly more oft en t han voices of asylum seekers. Looking at t he art icles across t he analysed periods, t here w as a spike in refugee voices in t he hopeful Period 2, but even so, t hese voices added t o less t han half in frequency compared t o voices of nat ional government represent at ives. As far as refugee voices are concerned, t hese result s remain very similar regardless of geographical proximit y t o incoming refugees. As described by David Davies, a Welsh M P in his comment s t o BBC Radio Wales on Sept ember 2nd , 2015 (ht t p:/ / w w w .bbc.co.uk/ new s/ uk-w ales-34126247). 3 9 How ever, nat ional government represent at ives w ere significant ly more quot ed in t he “ West ern” count ries t han in t he “ East ern” count ries in t he sample. To add t o t his, t he voices of European cit izens w ere feat ured even less t han t hose of refugees across t he sample. Finally, t he refugee w omen w ere part icularly missing in t he journalist ic frames. Women w ere rarely quot ed and in descript ions of refugees in t he art icles men and children dominat ed t he narrat ive. This all leads t o a problemat ic narrat ive emerging from t he media. There w as much t alk in t he art icles about t he refugees and t heir reasons for seeking asylum in Europe. There w as an emphasis on t he consequences t his has for European cit izens. How ever, neit her of t hese groups w as allow ed t o speak for t hemselves in t he art icles; act ions and emot ions w ere inst ead validat ed by t he (West ern) officials in charge. D. The fall in reported emotions In line w it h t he rising milit arist ic frame, our findings suggest t hat t he peak of t he “ refugee/ migrat ion crisis” saw a gradual shift in media narrat ives – from emot ional, humane narrat ive surrounding t he refugees and nat ional cit izens t o a relat ively dist ant , emot ionless framing. In part icular, art icles in t he period aft er t he Paris November t errorist at t acks (Period 3) report ed significant ly few er cit izen emot ions t han in Periods 1 and 2. Similarly, Period 3 also had t he few est number of refugee emot ions report ed overall. These findings vary across count ries and t here is again a West ern/ East ern frame t o be observed: t he biggest gap bet w een emphasizing home cit izens’ emot ions versus refugee emot ions w ere found in West ern count ries (France, Ireland, Czech Republic, Germany), w hile East ern count ries (Greece, Serbia, and also t he Arabic language press) w ere more balanced in t he proport ion. E. Country specifics: A brief glance While geographical proximit y t o t he Sout h-East ern European borders emerges as a vit al fact or in t he analysis, as out lined above, t he correlat ion is not st raight forw ard. There are significant differences among “ first cont act count ries” , as t here are differences bet w een and w it hin count ries in West ern Europe. We suggest t hat in order t o more comprehensively underst and t hese complex relat ions, a number of furt her fact ors needs t o be t aken int o account and t hese include not only socioeconomic and polit ical cont ext of t he count ry in quest ion, but also t he press cult ure, media regulat ion, t he ideological orient at ion of t he press, media and digit al lit eracy and media freedom. It is difficult t o discuss all of t hese charact erist ics vis-à-vis our findings in t his report , t hough t he discussion t hat follow s highlight s t he part icular challenges and recommendat ions t hat our findings point at w hen it comes t o European and nat ional policies and media regulat ory frames. In t his brief sect ion, w e st ress a number of pat t erns t hrough out lining charact erist ics of a few count ries below . Hungary: Hungarian press, more t han in any ot her analysed count ry, st ressed refugees’ economic reasons behind migrat ion. Narrat ives of securit y and border cont rol measures w ere import ant feat ures in t he art icles, and proposed defence init iat ives in t he press st ressed physical obst acles bet w een count ries (w hich paralleled government al policies at t he t ime). The refugees w ere part icularly nameless (6.7% compared t o 15.6% average across t he 10 European sample) and voiceless in t he sample, w hich part icularly concerned w omen: female refugees in Hungarian press w ere silent : somet imes seen, but never quot ed. Greece: New spaper frames emphasised geopolit ical reasons behind t he crisis t he most across all count ries. Refugees w ere given more voice compared t o t he European average in t he st udy and t hey w ere described w it h more at t ent ion t o t heir gender (especially descript ions of w omen w ere frequent – 26.3% compared t o t he European average of 15.9%) and age (44% compared t o t he European average of 27%). There w as a great disproport ion bet w een humanit arian act ions (25%) and defensive act ions (65.8%) report ed in t he art icles. Greek press w as one of t he t hree set s of media (alongside Serbian and Arabic press) w here report ed emot ions of cit izens or refugees w ere not significant ly different across t he t hree periods. This is possibly t he result of familiarit y, ext ended underst anding of cont ext and journalist research on t he event s. Greece w as also t he only count ry w here t he number of cit izen emot ions report ed w as roughly equal t o refugee emot ions report ed. France: One of t he only t hree count ries (along w it h Czech Republic and t he UK) w here ment ions of defensive measures (closing borders, t ight ening regist rat ion procedures increasing police and army presence, et c.) dominat ed over ment ions of caring measures. France w as t he second highest , aft er Ireland, in t he frequency of w omen refugee descript ions and second highest (aft er t he UK) in ment ions of refugee professions. France had also t he largest , by far, disproport ion bet w een refugees’ emot ions report ed (20% of art icles) and cit izens’ emot ions report ed (over 65% of art icles). Significant differences emerged bet w een Le M onde and Le Figaro, w here t he former oft en st ressed empat hy and described refugees as vict ims, w hile t he lat t er oft en emphasised fear and paint ed refugees as perpet rat ors. Germany: German press had t he most significant emphasis on act ion overall. Over 76% of art icles ment ioned defensive measures (closing borders, sending refugees back, increasing army and police presence, et c.) and over 85% ment ioned humanit arian measures – bot h st at ist ics w ere t he highest across t he European sample. On t he ot her hand, t he emphasis on reasons behind migrat ion w as t he low est in t he sample. Germany had also t he low est presence of female refugees across t he European sample. Last ly, German press w as t he t hird low est (aft er Hungary and Czech Republic) in t he frequency of refugee names ment ioned and remained below average in report ing refugee professions or age. SECTION III. Challenges associated w ith media practices, good practice and recommendations The findings from our cross-European st udy demonst rat e t he complexit y of challenges associat ed w it h t he media coverage of “ t he refugee/ migrat ion crisis” . These challenges are nat ional and t ransnat ional and can be out lined under t hree subt hemes: (1.) report ing cont ext ; (2.) nat ional media policy environment ; (3.) compet it ion. 1. Reporting context M edia had t o cover fast -developing st ories in t he cont ext of t ragedy, loss of life, and changing nat ional and European policies. In addit ion, in some part s of Europe especially, 11 media and journalist s had t o cover new s relat ing t o unfamiliar phenomena and people. European mainst ream media had t o respond t o t hese development s fast w it h report ing t hat at t imes lacked good underst anding of cont ext and background. The desire and delivery of speedy coverage by mainst ream media is largely t he result of pressures associat ed w it h t he fast and vast flow of informat ion delivered on online and social media. M any of t he media organisat ions and journalist s w ere unprepared t o cover such event s and t here is lit t le evidence of European media init iat ing syst emat ic t raining for t heir st aff on how t o deal w it h t he event s and t he sensit ive issues involved. Such t raining opport unit ies have been scat t ered and except ional. Furt hermore, media coverage of “ t he crisis” w as inevit ably int eract ing w it h polit ical decision-making and popular opinions. Thus, t he mainst ream polit ical narrat ives, w hich somet imes promot ed host ilit y and somet imes solidarit y t ow ards new comers, w ere inevit ably reflect ed in t he press coverage. How ever, quest ioning polit ical decision-making and engaging crit ically w it h t he narrat ives of t he “ crisis” , w hich is a responsibilit y associat ed w it h independent journalism, w as very uneven across Europe. It is import ant t o not e t hat w e observed no singular and direct link bet w een nat ional framew orks associat ed w it h freedom of expression and host ile coverage of refugees (e.g. Serbian press w as more sympat het ic t ow ards refugees vis-à-vis French media). How ever, w e observed t hat in count ries w here hat e speech is not alw ays t ackled syst emat ically (e.g. Hungary, France), host ilit y and dehumanisat ion of refugees in t he media w as more w idespread. 2. National media policy environment In all count ries st udied, t here is at least some basic regulat ion t o prot ect media freedom and diversit y. How ever, t here is significant unevenness in t he polit ical and media policy environment s across Europe. For example, in some count ries, polit ical pressures over t he press are somet imes indirect but effect ive. In addit ion, regulat ion is not alw ays follow ed by effect ive act ion, t hus hat e speech, st ereot yping and discriminat ion of minorit ies (such as migrant s and refugees) in t he media are common in cert ain sect ors of t he European press. In most count ries, press regulat ion is most ly enact ed in t he form of self-regulat ion, w it h varying out comes. Those count ries have press self-monit oring bodies responsible for overseeing st andards and addressing issues associat ed w it h hat e speech and discriminat ory report ing. How ever, in a number of count ries (e.g. Hungary, t he UK) t hese bodies have lit t le influence upon media pract ice. Also media cult ures and accept able language in t he media vary significant ly across Europe. For example, t here is significant difference in media environment s bet w een some count ries t hat have long hist ory of independent and pow erful public service media (e.g. Germany; UK) and ot hers w it h w eak or marginal public media (e.g. Greece; Hungary). In many count ries of East and West (e.g. France; Hungary), t he level or effect iveness in prosecut ion of hat e speech and of discriminat ion against minorit ies and groups on t he basis of race, et hnicit y and religion does not correspond t o exist ing legislat ion against hat e speech and prot ect ion of minorit ies. In addit ion, discriminat ory report ing somet imes relat es t o limit ed know ledge and underst anding among media professionals of groups and phenomena t hey cover. Furt hermore, financial pressures faced by a significant sect ion of t he media across Europe mean t hat resources for developing t raining opport unit ies for st aff are scarce. 12 3. Competition In all count ries st udied, t he media environment s are diverse and independent from st at e cont rol, at least w hen it comes t o regulat ory framew orks. Yet even w hen law prot ect s free speech, some nat ional environment s are defined by ext remely compet it ive market s. In many count ries of East / Sout heast Europe, corporat e media dominat e t he media market (e.g. Serbia, Greece) and only select ively engage w it h self-monit oring media indust ry bodies. In some West ern European count ries, effect ive act ion also remains a challenge w it h hat e speech legislat ion being cont est ed by a sect ion of t he media. Across Europe, new players, especially t hose funct ioning on digit al plat forms, const it ut e new compet it ors for est ablished media. As a result of int ense compet it ion, speedy and formulaic report ing somet imes replaces responsible report ing. In light of t hese challenges, t he coverage of “ t he refugee/ migrat ion crisis” demonst rat es t he urgent need for et hical and independent journalism in t he new media environment of fast and vast flow s of informat ion provided by mult iple and compet ing players. This increasingly diverse, compet it ive, and demanding media environment calls for even more responsibilit y and adherence t o values of et hical journalism and respect of democracy and diversit y: most import ant ly, fairness, balance, avoidance of language t hat promot es int olerance, and inclusiveness of voices of all part ies involved in st ories. Int ernat ional and nat ional organisat ions – not least , t he UN, t he CoE, t he EU, OECD, t he European Federat ion of Journalist s, and ot hers – have developed monit oring and st andardset t ing w ork including t reat ies, monit oring, and support ive t ools for self-regulat ing provisions for European media. Exist ing recommendat ions and t ools A number of cross-nat ional init iat ives, report s and recommendat ions by int ernat ional organisat ions also cont ribut e t o public debat e and act ion in t his area. For example, t he Unit ed Nat ions Alliance of Civilizat ions (2014) has developed a series of recommendat ions in support of fairer and more inclusive coverage of migrat ion in t he media. Among t hese recommendat ions, UNAC calls media organisat ions and journalist s t o develop a more sust ained underst anding of migrat ion before report ing on it , t o use t ools for expanding t his know ledge and t o also use informant s from among t he migrant communit ies and organisat ions, making a part icular effort t o include more voices of migrant s in t heir coverage of relevant st ories. These recommendat ions are compat ible and complement Art icle 10 of t he European Convent ion of Human Right s, w hich offers a key point of reference on issues relat ing t o freedom of expression The CoE’s engagement w it h fair coverage and represent at ion of all groups in European media is shaped by a number of relevant t reat y provisions (e.g. t he European Convent ion on Human Right s and t he Framew ork Convent ion for t he Prot ect ion of Nat ional M inorit ies (FCNM )). In addit ion, t he CoE has advanced w ork on freedom of expression and prot ect ion of minorit ies t hrough monit oring init iat ives (e.g. under t he FCNM and as conduct ed by t he European Commission against Racism and Int olerance (ECRI)) and st andard-set t ing (e.g. by t he Commit t ee of M inist ers and Parliament ary Assembly of t he CoE) exercises. The 13 Parliament ary Assembly, for it s part , has also adopt ed a number of Recommendat ions dealing w it h “ t he image of asylum seekers, migrant s and refugees in t he media” and “ migrant s, et hnic minorit ies and media” . Bot h t ext s cont ain useful provisions for count ering pract ices of negat ive st ereot yping and for ensuring access t o t he media. Such t reat ies and recommendat ions provide legislat ive t ools for t he members of t he organisat ion t o t ake effect ive act ion against hat e speech and discriminat ion, w hile prot ect ing freedom of expression for t he media and for minorit ies and also for promot ing and prot ect ing independent journalism and access t o media product ion and consumpt ion for all. Alongside int ernat ional organisat ions’ init iat ives, media professionals t hemselves have in cases addressed t he challenges of fair and accurat e report ing in t he midst of “ t he crisis” . For example, a self-regulat ion init iat ive in Greece highlight s t he role and responsibilit y of journalist s in covering t he plight of refugees and migrant s. M ore specifically, t he Journalist s’ Union of M acedonia and Thrace Daily New spapers (ESIEM TH) draft ed a proposal for t he adopt ion of t he Ant i-racism Et hics Code of t he Greek journalist s called The Chart er of Idomeni (aft er t he border village in Nort hern Greece w here t housands of refugees have passed or hope t o be passing t hrough on t heir w ay t o nort hern Europe). The chart er aims t o discourage and denounce t he climat e of int olerance in t he media, w hile prot ect ing freedom of expression and press freedom alongside t he right s of refugees and migrant s. This init iat ive has been w armly w elcomed by t he European Federat ion of Journalist s (EFJ) and ot her nat ional and int ernat ional bodies (see EFJ 2015 for full t ext of t he chapt er). Besides t reat ies and recommendat ions, a number of t ools are available t o media professionals t o enhance t heir ow n underst anding of et hical and fair journalism, especially in covering issues associat ed w it h migrat ion and diversit y. The CoE has t aken a leading role in t his area developing a number of project s, informat ion packs and hands-on t ools, in support ing journalist s and t he media. For example, t he joint CoE/ EU M EDIANE (M edia in Europe for diversit y inclusiveness) offers a hands-on, int eract ive t ool – M ediane Box – w hich media professionals can use t o t est t heir ow n pract ice and for developing t heir ow n underst anding of diversit y and inclusiveness agendas, w hile get t ing access t o pract ices and keyw ords t hat promot e diversit y in t he media. Anot her joint EU/ CoE programme, M ARS (M edia Against Racism in Sport ) focussed on sport s as an area of significant invest ment by t he media and w here issues of fairness in report ing is crit ical. M ARS developed t raining and provided pract ical t ools (available online) for journalist s in an at t empt t o support t he promot ion of non-discriminat ive approaches in t he w ays media cover sport s. The t w o project s built on t he CoE Speak Out Against Discriminat ion Campaign, w hich derived it s mandat e from t he CoE’s Whit e Paper on Int ercult ural Dialogue “ Living t oget her as equals in dignit y” . The campaign primarily t arget ed media indust ry professionals and w as built around t hree main object ives: (i.) Training media professionals; (ii.) Writ ing, seeing and hearing diversit y in t he media; (iii.) Producing and disseminat ing innovat ive and inclusive informat ion. A number of ot her nat ional and regional guidelines also exist , including t hose developed most recent ly by UNHCR (2016). Furt hermore, recent report s produced t hrough syst emat ic and et hical report ing w it h refugees and migrant s in Europe and beyond, such as t hose developed by t he Et hical Journalism Net w ork (Whit e 2015) and BBC’s M edia Act ion (Hannides et al. 2016) represent 14 examples of good pract ice in report ing “ t he crisis” in fair and responsible w ays, especially w hile giving voice t o all part ies involved. Conclusions and recommendations In light of t he above evidence and exist ing recommendat ions, t he CoE is w ell-placed t o develop a t arget ed st rat egy and t o t ake import ant and much needed act ion in support of t he media in t heir cont inued coverage of “ t he refugee/ migrant crisis” . It is import ant t o recognise t hat t he new arrivals and t heir set t lement in Europe present new and complex challenges. The opport unit ies of int egrat ion of refugees and migrant s int o nat ional/ European societ ies int erw eave w it h small and large scale changes and pot ent ial risks w it hin specific count ries and across t he cont inent . Bot h opport unit ies (for migrant s, for cit izens, for European count ries) and risks (individual and st ruct ural; socioeconomic, cult ural, polit ical and moral) need t o be seen in t he cont ext of global and hist orical development s. Thus, t he role of t he media emerges as crucial in providing a plat form for t hose complex issues t o be unpacked, problemat ized and present ed t o t he public. In part icular, t he responsibilit y of t he media t o provide fair report ing is higher t han ever. For example, t he complexit y of cont ext ualising specific condit ions (such as t he rise of ext remist / racist part ies and t errorist at t acks or eminent t hreat s for at t acks across Europe) makes t he role of t he media yet more import ant . As w e have show n in t his report , media frames t hrough w hich new spapers narrat e t he “ crisis” are largely limit ed, and it is in t his cont ext , t hat t he CoE has t he opport unit y t o furt her enhance it s cont ribut ion t o fairer and more inclusive coverage of refugees and migrant s across Europe. We ident ify six t arget ed areas for developing such a st rat egy. This st rat egy can benefit from exist ing and expanded collaborat ions w it h ot her import ant European and int ernat ional inst it ut ions, such as t he EFJ, t he EU and UNHCR. 1. Initiatives and campaigns for more inclusiveness in the media: The Council of Europe should cont inue t o monit or t he sit uat ion w it h a view t o ident ifying needs for furt her act ivit ies for t he promot ion of fair report ing on migrant s and refugees, t hat could complement exist ing init iat ives (such as M EDIANE and M ARS). There is a need t o (i.) boost t hese init iat ives’ promot ion w here relevant , w hile also (ii.) providing furt her support , especially as media professionals are moving from covering a crisis, t o covering st ories of new populat ions now set t ling in European societ ies and t he new challenges t his present s t o nat ional and European media. Such campaigns should be aimed t o reach all quart ers of Europe and it s media and t he Council of Europe should collect and make available online resources on refugees and migrant s t hat promot e et hnical report ing and count er hat e speech. On a specific level, t hese resources can include examples of good pract ices in coverage of refugees and migrant s, including media access t o refugee and migrant s’ ow n voices. In t he light of t he dat a present ed, campaign recommendat ions should urge media t o go beyond simple geopolit ical frames of risks and anxiet ies t ow ards inclusionary, posit ive language of shared challenges and common aims. 2. Contextual reporting of the crisis: The Council of Europe should sponsor and engage w it h t raining t hat enhances professional underst anding of reasons behind refugee and migrant mobilit y t ow ards Europe t hrough journalism w orkshops on, for example, w ar and crises in refugees’ count ries of origins and on refugees’ journeys t o Europe. This may also 15 include online informat ion packages on backgrounds of main groups of refugees and migrant s. The Council of Europe should collaborat e w it h European and nat ional organisat ions (e.g. EFJ; nat ional journalist unions) t o develop and promot e such init iat ives. 3. Inclusion of diverse voices: Such effort s should promot e monit oring, t ools and good pract ice cases on recognit ion of migrant s and refugees as more t han mere mass and/ or vict ims and/ or perpet rat ors of crime and t errorism in media coverage. Our recommendat ion for t he Council of Europe is t o compile refugee st ories but also t o compile nat ional list s of organisat ions or direct ories, w hich t he media can cont act / w ork w it h in order t o get informat ion on t he main int erest s and concerns of new migrant communit ies. This can also serve as t he first st ep in init iat ing cont act bet w een migrant s/ refugees and t he media and capacit y building in order t o make t hem part icipant s in rat her t han object s of media coverage. 4. Support and dissemination of information on migrant and refugee media and communication practices: There is significant t alent and passion behind emerging init iat ives of independent journalism among refugees and migrant s. The Council of Europe should make an effort t o ident ify some of t hese init iat ives and promot e links bet w een mainst ream media and refugee and migrant journalist s. This could be achieved, for inst ance, by coorganising and co-funding t raining for migrant and refugee journalist s, and, more broadly, proact ively support ing refugees’ engagement w it h variet y of media out let s (such as already exist ing communit y media in some M ember St at es). 5. Share research on media coverage of “the refugee/ migration crisis”: M edia organisat ions and professional associat ions alike can benefit from furt hering t heir know ledge in regards t o pat t erns of unfair and st ereot ypical report ing of migrant s and refugees. The Council of Europe could sponsor t he disseminat ion of such research and consider media-friendly w orkshops and publicat ions t hat share research findings. 16 References Cot t le, S. (2002) Et hnic minorit ies and t he media . 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Available at : ht t p:/ / et hicaljournalismnet w ork.org/ asset s/ docs/ 038/ 141/ 6adda26-23eaf8d.pdf 17 New spapers analysed (overall more t han 1200 art icles): Arabic language European press: Al-Hayat , Al-Araby Al-Jadeed Czech Republic: Pravo, Lidove Noviny France: Le M onde, Le Figaro Germany: Süddeut sche Zeit ung, Frankfurt er Allgemeine Zeit ung Greece: EFSYN, Kat himerini Hungary: M agyar Nemzet , Népszabadság Ireland: Irish Independent , The Irish Times Serbia: Vecernje Novost i, Blic UK: The Guardian, The Times, The Independent , The Daily Telegraph 18 Resources Council of Europe  Journalism at Risk, 2015: ht t ps:/ / book.coe.int / eur/ en/ human-right s-anddemocracy/ 6675-journalism-at -risk.ht ml  Count ry monit oring w ork of ECRI: ht t p:/ / w w w .coe.int / t / dghl/ monit oring/ ecri/ library/ publicat ions.asp  General Policy Recommendat ions (GPR) of ECRI: ht t p:/ / w w w .coe.int / t / dghl/ monit oring/ ecri/ act ivit ies/ GeneralThemes_en.asp  Commissioner for Human Right s, 3rd quart erly act ivit y report 2015: ht t ps:/ / w cd.coe.int / com.inst ranet .Inst raServlet ?command=com.inst ranet .CmdBlobGet & Inst ranet Image=2839690& SecM ode=1& DocId=2327362& Usage=2  Commissioner for Human Right s, Wit hout papers but not w it hout right s: t he basic social right s of irregular migrant s: ht t p:/ / w w w .coe.int / en/ w eb/ commissioner/ -/ w it hout papers-but -not -w it hout -right s-t he-basic-social-right s-of-irregular-migrant s  Commissioner for Human Right s, w ork on media freedom, independence and diversit y: ht t p:/ / w w w .coe.int / en/ w eb/ commissioner/ t hemat ic-w ork/ media-freedom  European Chart er for Regional or M inorit y Languages, Report s and recommendat ions by count ry: ht t p:/ / w w w .coe.int / t / dg4/ educat ion/ minlang/ Report / default _en.asp  Framew ork Convent ion for t he Prot ect ion of Nat ional M inorit ies, Count ry-specific monit oring: ht t p:/ / w w w .coe.int / en/ w eb/ minorit ies/ count ry-specific-monit oring  List of Commit t ee of M inist ers Recommendat ions, Resolut ions and Declarat ions adopt ed in t he media field: ht t p:/ / w w w .coe.int / t / dghl/ st andardset t ing/ media/ Doc/ CM / CM _t ext s_en.pdf  M ARS (M edia Against Racism in Sport ) ht t p:/ / w w w .coe.int / t / dg4/ cult ureherit age/ mars/ default _en.asp  M ediane (M edia in Europe for diversit y inclusiveness) ht t p:/ / w w w .coe.int / t / dg4/ cult ureherit age/ mars/ mediane/ default _en.asp  Recommendat ion 2075 (2015) and Resolut ion 2066 (2015) M edia responsibilit y and et hics in a changing media environment  Recommendat ion 2062 (2015) and Resolut ion 2035 (2015) Prot ect ion of t he safet y of journalist s and of media freedom in Europe  List of Council of Europe document s concerning hat e speech: ht t p:/ / w w w .rgsl.edu.lv/ uploads/ files/ RGSL_Konference_Cela_uz_ieklaujosu_sabiedribu_ 241012_List .pdf  Speak out against discriminat ion Campaign ht t p:/ / w w w .coe.int / t / dg4/ ant idiscriminat ion-campaign/ default _en.asp European Court of Human Right s    PERİNÇEK v. SWITZERLAND KHURSHID M USTAFA AND TARZIBACHI V. SWEDEN Hat e speech fact sheet : ht t p:/ / w w w .echr.coe.int / Document s/ FS_Hat e_speech_ENG.pdf 19 Int ernat ional Organisat ions  UNHCR, 2016, Report ing on refugees: By and for journalist s. ht t p:/ / w w w .unhcr.ie/ images/ uploads/ pict ures/ pdf/ report ingonrefugees.pdf  Unit ed Nat ions Alliance of Civilizat ions, 2013, Covering M igrat ion: Challenges met and unmet , media-Friendly Glossary on M igrat ion (UNAOC, 2014): ht t p:/ / w w w .unaoc.org/ w p-cont ent / uploads/ Paris-SeminarM igrat ion_Recommendat ions_Feb2013.pdf  M edia-Friendly Glossary on M igrat ion, UNAOC, 2014: ht t p:/ / w w w .panoseurope.org/ sit es/ default / files/ product ion_files/ UNAOC-PanosEurope-Inst it ut e_M edia-Friendly-Glossary-on-M igrat ion.pdf 20